1848] 



THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 



29 



to vary in different localities. Pipe- clay was obtained from beds situated in 

 the midst of other clays, and they appeared to form a band of finer material 

 associated with the coarser clays. There was a great deal of this clay found 

 at Paris, where it was called argile plastique. The lower beds of the London 

 clay were also described as plastic clay ; but they consisted, for the most 

 part, of gravel or pebble beds, for which that was not at all a proper name. 

 Still, some of them contained this material. 



Fullers' earth was another and a finer kind of clay, used in the fulling of 

 cloth, on account of its power of absorbing grease readily from woollens. It 

 contained an unusually large quantity of silica, as compared with the ordinary 

 pipe-clay, the proportion of the latter being 43 per cent, of silica, and 33 of 

 alumina; while that of the former was — silica, 53 ; alumina, 10; the other 

 parts being made up of iron (about 9f per cent.), magnesia (1 per cent.), 

 and water (24 per cent.). Fullers' earth was derived from the Weald clay 

 at Nutfield, in the neighbourhood of Reigate, and from the lower part of the 

 oolite rocks in Wiltshire. In each case there was a considerable variation 

 in the colour, occasioned by the condition cf the oxide of iron ; but the 

 texture was the same, and the colour was a matter of very little conse- 

 quence. 



Porcelain clay was another important material. This was derived from 

 decomposed felspar, obtained generally from gneiss, or granite. It was the 

 purest of all the clay rocks, being a pure silicate of alumina, consisting of 60 

 per cent, of sihca, and 40 of alumina. A large quantity (8,000 tons annually) 

 of the finer kinds was obtained in Cornwall by artificial washing. Besides 

 this, upwards of 25,000 tons of the coarser kinds was obtained from beds 

 formed by the natural washing of the rains. The decomposed felspar was 

 mixed with water in the artificial process, and moved along at a certain velo- 

 city, when the whole was gradually deposited in the shape of porcelain clay. 

 The coarser parts were deposited first, when the mass moved most rapidly ; 

 next, the finer parts, as the mass moved slower ; and, lastly, the finest of 

 all. 



There were other clays worthy of notice, as, for instance, the ochres, red 

 and yellow, the colour being decided by the condition of the oxide of iron, 

 which was present in them in considerable quantities. These, however, 

 were not important as materials. 



From some clays, the substance called alion was derived ; but that, like 

 the ochres, was not an important material, geologically speaking, although 

 Interesting from the chemical process by which it was obtained. The talented 

 lecturer concluded by briefly describing this process. 



PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 



ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. 



Nov. 29. — A. PoYNTER, Esq., V.P., in the Chair. 



The Secretary read the Report of the Committee appointed to examine 

 the design submitted by the Cavalier Nicolo Matas for the completion of 

 the western front of the Cathedral at Florence. The report expressed in 

 general terms an approval of the design ; and stated that the architect has 

 shown judgment in adopting the style of the other parts of the exterior — 

 thus seeking to complete the noble edifice in one congruous character, in 

 harmony with the Campanile and the Baptistery. By this unity of senti- 

 ment, the design for the western front appears a consistent and integral 

 part of the structure. 



A paper was read by J. Gwilt, Esq., entitled, " Some discursive Remarks 

 on Pointed Architecture, in relation to its Symmetry and Stabilitij,'* 



The essay was of considerable length, and traced in a general way the 

 origin of Gothic architecture. Mr. Gwilt stated that of a great number of 

 writers on that subject whom he had consulted, he found tliat twenty were 

 of opinion that it originated in Germany, fourteen that it was of Eastern or 

 Saracenic origin, six tliat it arose from the hint suggested by the intersec- 

 tion of Norman arches, four that it was the invention of the Goths, and 

 three that it arose in Italy. lUr. Gwilt was of opinion, with M. Michelet 

 (" Histoire de France"), that when the power of the Church diminished 

 about the year 1200 under Innocent 111. the arts, particularly architecture, 

 fell into lay hands to a considerable extent ; that the impetus thus given 

 changed its character ; and that in the hands of the lodges of Freemasons 

 which then arose Gothic architecture and all its developments were origi- 

 nated and taught. By the aid of diagrams and drawings the gradual 

 growth of the fine forms of Gothic architecture were developed and its 

 principles explained; the leading fact seeming to be that the number of 

 sides in the polygonal apsides of the cathedrals was the governing number 

 for all the parts of the plan and even the details of the architecture. 

 Many curious instances of these analogies were given. Mr. Gwilt corn- 

 batted the " Vesica Piscis" theory, as well as the vagaries, as he called 

 them, of the symbolists. 



A communication was read from E. I'anson, relative to some mural paint- 

 ings discovered by him in the church of Lingfield, in Surrey. These 

 paintings, fac-similes of which were exhibited by him, represented draped 

 figures, about three feet in height, on a diaper groundwork, and appeared to 

 have been executed in distemper. They had at some period been covered 



over with whitewash ; on which the Commandments and scriptural texts 

 had been inscribed. 



Dec. 13.— S.Angell, Esq., V.P., in the Chair. 

 A paper was read " On the Principles and Practice of Building Sewers." 

 By E. I'anson, jun.. Fellow. 



The intention of the author was to show that sewers might be effectually 

 constructed with a moderate fall ; that no one form of section is applicable 

 under all circumstances, but that no form should materially depart from that 

 of the semicircular invert ; that all main sewers should be of sufficient al- 

 titude to allow a man to pass through ; that no impediment should be offered 

 to the contmuous flow by cross streams or accumulating deposits; and that 

 cleansing by "flushing" is an eflicient means of removing the silt and other 

 matters in the sewers. Mr. I'anson particularly alluded to the necessitv of 

 all sewers being of suflicient, but not of more than suflicient, sectional area 

 to contain the greatest quantity of water that may at one time have to pass 

 off— or that, as in the case of districts below the level of high water, they 

 may have at one time to contain. In reference to the idea of constructing 

 sewers of small size and removing the contents by continued pumping, Mr. 

 I'anson remarked, that as the pumping power should be at all times equai 

 not only to discharge the average quantity of water, but also that of the 

 greatest quantity which may at any time be required to be passed off, it was 

 obvious that there would be an enormous continued waste of power at a 

 cost more than commensurate to the saving effected by constructing the 

 sewers of smaller size. 



SOCIETY OF ARTS, LONDON. 



Nov. 10. — Thomas Webster, Esq.,.F.R.S., in the Chair. 

 The Secretary read an address on the opening of this the 94 th Session of 

 the Society. 



Mr. J. CuNDAi.L read a paper " On Ornamental Art as applied to Ancient 

 and Modern Bookbinding." 



The author commenced by stating that the earliest records of bookbinding 

 prove that the art has been practised for nearly 2,000 years ; previous to 

 which time, books were written on strolls of parchment. Some inventive 

 genius, however, to whom tlie Athenians erected a statue, at length found 

 out a means of binding books with glue : the rolls of vellum, &c., were cut 

 into sheets of two and four leaves, and were then stitched somewhat as at 

 the present day. Then came the necessity for a covering, The first book- 

 covers appear to have been made of wood, probably merely plain oaken 

 boards, which were afterwards succeeded by valuable carved oak bindings ; 

 these were followed by boards covered with vellum or leather, and specimens 

 of such of great antiquity still exist. The Romans carried the art of book- 

 binding to considerable perfection, and some of their public oflicers had 

 books called " Diptycks," in which their acts were written. An old writer 

 says that about the Christian era, the books of the Romans were covered 

 with red, yellow, green, and purple leather, and decorated with silver and 

 gold. In the 13th century some of the gospels, missals, and other service 

 books for the use of the Greek and Roman churches, were covered in gold 

 and silver; some were also enamelled and enriched with precious stones and 

 pearls of great value. In the 15th century, when art was universal, such 

 men as Albert Durer, Raffaelle, and Guillo Romano, decorated books. The 

 use of calf and morocco binding seems to have followed the introduction of 

 printing, and there are many printed books bound in calf with oaken boards 

 about the 15th and beginning of the sixteenth centuries ; these are mostly 

 stamped with gold and bhud tools: the earliest of these tools generally re- 

 present figures, such as Christ, St. Paul, coats of arms, &c., according to tlie 

 contents of the book. In the reign of Henry VIII., about 1538, Grafttrn, 

 the printer, undertook to print the Great Bible, for which purpose he went 

 to Paris, there not being suflicient men or types in England; he had not, 

 however, proceeded far when he was stopped in the progress of this " he- 

 retical book," upon which he returned to England, bringing with him presses, 

 type, printers, and bookbinders, and finished the work in 1539. Henry VIll. 

 had many books bound in velvet, with gold bosses and ornaments ; and in 

 his reign the stamping of tools in gold appears to have been introduced. In 

 the reign of Elizabeth, some exquisite bindings were done by embroidery, 

 the queen herself working the covers with gold and silver thread, spangles, 

 &c. Count Grolier seems to have been a great patron of the art on the 

 continent, and all his books were bound in smooth morocco or calf orna- 

 mented with gold. The style of the books of Maioli was very similar to 

 that of Grolier, or those of Diana of Poictiers, the specimens done for her 

 being among the finest ever produced, and were no doubt designed by Petit 

 Bernard. Rogar Paine was the first Englishman who produced a really good 

 binding, and some of his best works, such as French romances, were pow- 

 dered with the fleur-de-hs. His books on chivalry had suitable ornaments ; 

 on poetical works he used a simple lyre, and carried the emblematical style 

 of binding as far as emblems ought to be used. The following bill of his 

 for binding a work is a curiosity, and shows how moderately he charged : — 

 " Vaneria prodiura Rusticum, Parisiis, mdcclxxiv. 

 " Bound in the very best manner in the finest green mo- 

 rocco, the back lined with red morocco. Fine drawing- 

 paper and very neat morocco joints inside. Their was a 

 few leaves staind at the foredge, which is washed and 

 cleaned .. .. .. .. ■• 006 



