420 



THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 



[December, 



and, on the other hand, the vast quantity of chloride of sodium, increasing 

 warm and tranquil seas. Where the coral reefs are most abundant, naturally 

 gives rise ;o another question — whether, elaborated within the living system> 

 the sodium is not converted into calcium: it is true that chemistry sheds no 

 light upon the subject, the earths being classed as undecompounded bodies' 

 •widely apart in their nature from each other : but observation and experi- 

 ment inform us that the earth undergoes many modifications, and, as in- 

 stanced in metals, permanent changes: but, admitting a negative to this 

 supposition, we have still to look for its elementary constituents in the living 

 body. Mr. Lyell supposes that it is supplied by thermal springs, but if so, 

 why are the lower regions wholly destitute of lime-secreting species? hy 

 warmth they are produced, and, deprived of the requisite degree ol warmth, 

 most of the species perish : again, the genera, orders and species multiply ra- 

 pidly in the shallows, and the quantities of calcareous matter increase faster 

 and more extensively there than in the deeper waters; numerous species of 

 the more delicate coralims existing only where the reflecting and radiating 

 heat is greatest : again, in the vast shallows, whose \ulleys are covered with 

 sand or ocean marl, the increase of calcareous matter is still more rapid and 

 extraordinary thi'ii within the ocean bed : the law of formation and secretion 

 being palpably light and heat, under all circumstances, or. more pi 

 speaking, galvanic action produced by the conjoint operations of light, heat, 

 and life . again, that they do not derive their lime from the base on which 

 they rest, is evidenced by the continuous increase of this calcareous base, as 

 it derives accession of matter from the living and the dead : thus, the entire 

 beds of inland seas are rapidly filling up, and hy the tilling up of the ocean- 

 is uniform over vast regions. 



To those who ask the question—" Whence comes calcium t" — ] would say. 

 — whence comes the perhaps, equally enormnis quantities of animal oils — 

 gelatine, albumen, and other compounds, manifest in organic tortus, being in 

 quantities constituent of the animal and vegetable frame-work, each of which 

 in aggregate, w mild form mountains and probably mountain chains '.' Whence 

 come the mineral oils and bitumens of Ava, Persia. America, and England P 

 Whence, but from the chemical and mechanical operation of life : as is tes- 

 tified by the vasl i 'tis of the earth, and by the changes that are 

 continually U--I.ii g place before our eyes. In the fossil we identify the once 

 living body, its peculiar species, and, consequently, its peculiar habit and 

 character; we observe that its calx is remodified in combination only, but its 

 gelatine and alhumen have become convi rth : again, the 

 tree is converted into coal and the animal blending therewith is also converted 

 into coal : again, the fossil is silidfied U i' at, in like manner as the madrc. 

 pores and ml'.ipores consolidate and become converted into rock. The ana- 

 lytical chemist, to whom all men are indebted for many of the most impor- 

 portant discoveries, explanatory of the nature and properties of bodii 

 of their elementary constituents, tells you that, however nun 

 nomena of natural bodies, however complicated their organic or im 

 structure, however dense or subtle their material : all of them are resoluble 

 into the four 1 Is,— hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon I 

 all of tb .tores of these four Elements. Why, then 

 should it be made a matter of surprize, that neiple, which is 

 universally present and directs these numerous combinations, should be the 

 primary cause < calcium within the living system. Animals u' 

 even the lowest organization, elaborate ammonia, which is the distinguish- 

 ing chracterislic of animal life ; animals elaborate albumen, gelatine, and 

 carbon; and vegetables absorb the latter, giving it furm and consolidation, 

 and transmitting it in this state to the fossil and mineral kingdom, the one 

 and the other of the undecompounded bodies are mechanical mixtures in ma. 

 thematica) exactitude of primary elements, or of these united w ith secondary 

 qualities. Admitted that many terresti abstract tbe portion of 

 |imc they contain from the earth, still this is manifest proof that such is the 

 general law of nature; the complex organization of the higher orders of 

 animals is produced by abstraction of some compounds from other bodies, 

 and bv the elaboration of others, hy the mechanical and chemical union ot 

 these abstracted compounds within the living system : thus bile, red blood 

 fibrin, ana other laminar products arc- generated. 



Proposed Docks on the Cheshire Side of the Mfrsey. — The leading 

 topic of conversation in Liverpool has been the avowed project of the com- 

 missioners of Birkenhead to construct a dock on the Cheshire side of the 

 Mersi . . It -ci in > thai the intention is not a new one, hut has been cherished 

 a considerable time, and the parties only waited until the corporation of 

 Liverpool had disposed of their land there, or a portion of it, for other pur- 

 )>oscs, previous to announcing it to the world. The consent of the Admiralty 

 has been obtained for enclosing the whole of Wallasey Poo), from the bottom 

 of the Woodside Ferry to Seacombe — an area of not less than 340 acres. It 

 was intended to have gates, a tidal basin of 30 acres, 12 feet of water at all 

 times of tide, for vessels to float in, and dock space to the extent of 1 20 acres 

 also an additional tunnel under the township, to connect the tunnel extend- 

 ing from the station of the Biikenhead and Chester Railway, at GraDge-lane, 



to the Monk's Ferry, with the dock. The cost of the work was estimated at 

 near 300,000?. All the pecuniary advantages derived from the dock are to 

 be appropriated to the measure itself, and if ever,from the sale of part of the 

 land, or otherwise, any other revenue should arise, it is to go in the reduction, 

 first of all of the dock rates, and afterwards of the cost of construction, until 

 finally tbe dock should be open to the whole world free of charge. Plans 

 had been prepared, sections taken, bearings made, levels obtained, notices 

 ready, and everything in a state of forwardness. 



WesTMiNSTER-BBiDGE. — Since the carriage-way of this bridge was 

 closed, the workmen have been engaged in removing the great body of 

 loose sand and rubble walls which loaded the east pier of the centre arch 

 unnecessarily, and are preparing to substitute brick arches, &&, for this, as 

 described in Mr. Walker's letter to us, and as was done to the sunken pier 

 on the Middlesex side. Mr. Nixon, the superintendent of the works, informs 

 us that the lessening of the weight upon each pier by this operation, and by 

 the proposed lowering of the roadway, will not be less than 1,700 tons, and 

 that since this lightening began there has not been the smallest movement 

 in any part; whether, however, this -will continue so, time only can prove. 

 Messrs. Walker and liurges have thought it prudent to take the opinion of 

 two other eminent engineers. Messrs. Cubitt and Rendel : we understand 

 their opinion also to be, that the sinking of the piers of the bridge is caused 

 by the great load upon the clay foundation, their being no piles under this 

 bridge, and the ground on the Surrey side being of a loose nature. Supposing 

 this to be correct, to lessen the load appears the direct remedy. The masonry 

 of three of the arches being laid bare gives an opportunity fur taking out 

 any suken stones, and stopping the cracks from the upper side, and is uow in 

 progress. Many of our readers may not be aware, that when Westminster- 

 bridge was begun, the intention was to have wooden arches, and that the 

 thickness of the piers was enlarged for carrying stone arches without adding 

 to the foundation, lleuce perhaps their general weakness. It appears from 

 the plans, which \vc have seen, that there is a thickness varying from 2 feet 

 to ', feet, of sand and gravel between the bottom of the caissons and the 

 clay. — Times. 



Till: Ni:\V AMERICAN STEAMER "PRINCETON'," AND THE 

 "GREAT WESTERN." 



It appears that Brother Johathan is in ecstacies, because he baa 

 produced a rival vessel to the (-ireat Western, and beaten her in a 

 trial, when the latter vessel was leaving New York at her last trip to 

 England. The only information we can collect is horn the news- 

 papers, the first announcement appearing in the Times: — 



A trial of speed between the Great Western and the American steamer 

 of war Princeton is very minutely described in the United States papers. 

 The result was a decided victory by the Princeton, though it is said the 

 Great Western sailed faster than on any former occasion. The Americans, 

 as might lie supposed, have not lost so excellent ail opportunity of display- 

 ing their talent for boasting, and speak of tbe victory in nine!) the same 

 terms as would have been used if they had conquered an important province. 

 This eulogy of Captain Stockton of the Princeton, and under whose imme- 

 diate direction the ship and machinery were constructed, appears in the 

 official paper, the MaduomAn. 



Our friends across the Atlantic have forgetten to tell us that it was a 

 " Britisher " who designed her engines and the propeller, both being 

 the invention of Captain Ericsson formerly connected with the re- 

 spectable firm of Messrs. llraithwaite and Co. of London, and patented 

 by him in this country; the engines are of the vibratory principle 

 (not oscillating). The following particulars we extract from a Liver- 

 pool paper: — 



The Princeton is propelled by the Ericsson propeller— her tonnage is 

 about 6S(), and the engines equal to the power of 2.50 horses : the diameter ol 

 the single propeller, which works amidships, 14 feet. The rudder is bung on 

 a metal rudder-post, resting to a prolongation of the keel under and f 

 the propeller, and. of course, beyond the hull of the vessel. Above the pro- 

 peller, the cabin, ol light basket-work, projects, and through it the rudder 

 comes up. The (Ireat Western is double the tonnage ol the Princeton, and 

 her engines are eons! to the power of 120 horses. Sjhe draws four feet less 

 water than the Princeton, arising probably from the great diameter of tbe 

 propeller, and the necessity of its beins> submerged. The propeller makes 3t> 

 revolutions in the minute : the Great Western's wheels at the utmost 16. 



From this comparison, it appears that the Great \\ estem ought (?) lo have 

 had the best of the race ; but Cap;, llosken has affirmed, in extenuation, that 

 his ship was •' deep." and that it was " rather more so than usual ;" and be 

 further alleges that, during the time the Princeton was sailing with the 

 Great Western, the lattei an hour, con- 



veying apparently an idea that she was not g u i -pee- 1, whereas 



we have the testimony of F. B. Ogden, Esq., of this town (Liverpool), an au- 

 thority of Indisputable veracity, (who was present on board one of the 

 vessels at the time, and saw and n oted everything specifically) that "the 

 distance from where the eli.sr I . dy book, is perfect!} w, -II known. 



and capable el bein| ei and that " by die course the 



Great Western took the distance was 18 miles, while that taken by the 

 Princeton was 21. the former performing the 18 miles in 1 h.28m. ami the 

 latter the 21 miles, in 1 h. 31m. against a strong Hood tide and adverse cur- 

 rents." This, therefore, would give the Great Western twelve miles an hour, 

 and the Princeton fourteen, the diilerence being two miies an hour, instead 

 of three quarters of a mile. 



