O. A. Merritt Hawkes 259 



represented with the second toe longest (type S) but the text reads, 

 " Polleo) pedis is longer than the other toes." In 1864 Vogt, in Lectures 

 on Man, refers on p. 153 to "the length of the great toe which generally 

 exceeds in man, that of the other toes," but the skeleton on p. 56 

 shows the second toe as the longest. Marshall in The Human Body 

 (1875), makes no statement, but the skeleton represented shows the S 

 type and the drawings of the feet are L, S, A and B. Flower in 1881 

 writes : " The first or inner toe is much larger than either of the others 

 and its direction is parallel with the axis of the foot.... It seems to be a 

 common idea with artists and sculptors as well as anatomists, that the 

 second toe ought to be longer than the first in a well proportioned 

 human foot.... Among hundreds of bare and therefore undeformed feet 

 of children I lately examined in Perthshire, I was not able to find one 

 in which the second toe was the longest." Braune in 1884 stated that 

 the second toe was always the longer in the foetus and also among 

 70 per cent, of adults and this statement is repeated as authoritative by 

 Stratz in 1903. Kollmann, agreeing with Braune, says that 30 per 

 cent, only of the population of civilized countries have the L type 

 of foot, whilst Holden on the other hand says that the majority are of 

 the L type. Weissenberg in his important paper of 1895 finds that the 

 majority have the L type of foot. Lazarus in 1896 published complex 

 tables of the exact measurements of the foot bones, but does not give 

 their relation to the relative lengths of the toes of the foot. Dunlop in 

 Anatomical Designs for Art Students (1899) represents the foot and 

 the skeleton with the second toe decidedly the longer. Pfitzner in his 

 papers from 1901 to 1903 recognises the existence of both types. 

 Thomson in Anatomy for Art Students (1906) makes no statement 

 but writes, " in regard to the length of the toes, there is much diversity 

 of opinion." Volker (1905) did not examine the living foot nor does he 

 state the appearance of the skeleton, but makes it clear, that for most 

 Europeans, the first toe appears the longest. Volker was limited by 

 examining only the skeleton of the foot, very few of which are prepared 

 sufficiently well for careful work. Undoubtedly radiographs give a 

 truer idea of the relation of the bones than the dried skeleton. Dwight 

 (1907) in Variations of the Bones of the Hand and Foot did not touch 

 on the point now under consideration. An examination, however, shows 

 both S and L types among his radiographs, but the majority of them 

 were so taken that no conclusion can be reached as regards the relation 

 of the toes to one another. From the above summary of the litera- 

 ture, it becomes obvious that a further enquiry was needed for England. 



