154 FORESTS, WOODS, AND TREES 
oak, larch, and beech. Oak is also a valuable tree in 
coppice with standards. 
Of the species of oak which have been introduced into 
this country, the common evergreen oak (Quercus Ilex) is of 
no value in ordinary plantations, but is useful in wind 
screens by the sea. The Turkey oak (Quercus Cerris) grows 
faster in England than the common oak, especially on sandy 
soils ; but its cultivation, except in shelter belts, cannot be 
recommended, as the timber which it produces is of little 
value. The American red oak (Quercus rubra) is also fast 
in growth on deep sandy soils in the south of England, and 
is worth introducing into the heaths of Surrey and Sussex, 
where it could be grown in groups amidst the Scots pines. 
The wood is strong and elastic, and of considerable value, 
but is not very durable when used out of doors, 
Alder.—The common alder (Alaus glutinosa) is a native 
species, useful in wet situations, either as a large tree or 
for forming remunerative coppice. It bears more water 
in the soil than almost any other European tree; and is 
usually met with either pure, or mixed with willows, near 
streams, rivers, and lakes, on alluvial soil, the surface of 
which is only a few inches above the level of the ground 
water. Such land, if it can be drained a little, will bear 
good ash. Alder thrives in marshy or fenny land, in which 
the contained water is alkaline and rich in lime and other 
salts; but it does not succeed in wild undrained peat bog, 
full of water, poor in mineral salts, and acid in reaction. 
Alder on good soil bears a considerable amount of shade, 
and may be introduced into wet places in low-lying planta- 
tions. At high elevations wet spots, if possible, should be 
drained and planted with spruce, or else be left alone. 
Alder may be used as a nurse for other trees in damp 
low-lying areas, subject to spring frosts. It grows rapidly 
in the young stage, and protects conifers like spruce and 
silver fir, which are slow-growing at first and liable to 
injury from frost in such situations. The alder is cut out 
gradually, as soon as the spruce or silver fir increases rapidly 
