158 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS. 



paler brown with greyish fringes ; primary-coverts like primaries ; 

 greater and median coverts brown with dark centres and whitish- 

 buff fringes and tips ; lesser coverts brown, narrowly tipped 

 greyish-white. This plumage is acquired by complete moult from 

 Aug. to Nov. Summer. No moult. Abrasion of greyish or 

 buffish fringes of feathers of mantle and crown causes dark centres 

 of feathers to show more, giving a darker and more streaked 

 appearance, under-parts become whiter less tinged buff. 



Nestling. Down, whitish straw-colour, long and plentiful ; 

 distribution, inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal, 

 femoral and filaments on ventral. Mouth, inside dull orange - 

 yellow, two black spots at base and another at tip of tongue; 

 externally gape-flanges dull ivory-white. 



Juvenile. Upper-parts bumsh-brown, feathers of crown, 

 mantle and scapulars with large white tips and penultimate dark 

 mark, giving a spotted appearance ; feathers of fore-head, back of 

 neck and rump with narrow whitish edgings ; upper tail-coverts 

 with more buffish tips ; crest-feathers shorter and more rounded 

 than in adult ; dark brown markings on upper-breast in form of 

 spots rather than streaks and much less heavy than in adult ; 

 rest of breast, belly, flanks and under tail-coverts whiter than 

 adult and unstreaked ; tail much as adult but two middle pairs 

 paler and all tipped buffish- white ; wing-feathers paler and more 

 bumsh-brown than adult and with more distinct buff edgings and 

 whitish tips with narrow dark penultimate lines more marked 

 in inner secondaries ; all wing-coverts like wing-feathers but 

 with broad whitish tips and distinct dark penultimate lines. 



First winter and summer. Like adult. The juvenile plumage 

 is completely (including wings and tail) moulted in early autumn. 



Measurements and structure. <$ wing 105-110 mm., tail 61-68, 

 tarsus 25-28, bill from skull 17-19 (12 measured). $ wing 94-102. 

 Primaries : 1st 3-6 mm. shorter than longest primary-covert, 

 4th longest, 3rd and 5th often as long but usually 1-2 shorter, 

 2nd 1-5 shorter, 6th 5-8 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer 

 webs. Secondaries between 8th and 10th primaries, tips square 

 and notched, longest inner secondary nearly equals 6th primary. 

 In juvenile plumage 1st primary is as long as longest primary- 

 covert and tip is much rounder and less pointed than in adult. 

 Tail almost square. Hind claw almost straight, spike-shaped and 

 as long as, or rather longer than, hind toe. Bill rather slender, 

 culmen curved. A few fine rictal and nasal bristles and bristle- 

 like feathers covering nostrils. 



Soft parts. Bill, culmen and tip of lower mandible dark 

 horn, rest of lower and cutting edge of upper pale flesh ; legs and 

 feet pale flesh ; iris black -brown. 



CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. Numerous races displace one 

 another geographically, distinguished by small differences in size 



