178 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS. 



tarsus 20-21.5, bill from skull 13.5-15, hind claw 7.5-9, consider- 

 ably curved and equal to or shorter than hind toe (12 measured). 

 $ wing 80-87. Primaries : 1st minute, about half primary- 

 coverts, 2nd to 4th about equal (greatest difference 1 mm.) and 

 longest, 5th 2.5-5 mm. shorter, 6th 11-14 shorter; 3rd to 5th 

 emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 7th and 10th 

 primaries, tips fairly square, longest inner secondary generally 

 equal to 5th primary but in summer plumage often as long as 

 longest primary. Tail slightly forked. Bill rather fine with base 

 wider and flatter. A few fine short rictal bristles. Nostrils 

 uncovered. 



Soft parts. Bill, upper and tip of lower mandible dark brown, 

 rest of lower pale flesh ; legs and feet pale brownish-flesh (pinker 

 than Meadow-Pipit) ; iris black-brown. 



CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. A. t. hodgsoni (maculatus Jerd. 

 1864 of authors, but not of Vieillot 1818) (Siberia, Japan to India 

 and China) and A. t. berezowskii (Kansu) are generally much greener 

 and more uniform on upper-parts and have wider and blacker 

 streaks on under-parts, A. t. haringtoni (Kashmir) has wider, 

 coarser bill and wider streaks on under-parts than typical form, 

 A. t. yunnanensis (south-west China) has shorter bill. For specific 

 distinctions see pp. 180-1. 



FIELD-CHARACTERS. Pipits differ from Larks in their more 

 slender build, graceful carriage, and restless Wagtail-like activity, 

 but resemble one another very closely in appearance, voice and 

 demeanour. Very like Meadow-Pipit, but rather larger, tail 

 longer, upper-parts warmer brown, spots on breast larger but fewer, 

 and legs flesh-coloured. Inhabits wooded districts. Song some- 

 times uttered from tree-tops, but usually on wing as bird ascends 

 perpendicularly from perch and then planes downwards with 

 outspread wings and upturned and outspread tail ; notes during 

 descent " see-ar, see-ar, see-ar," are characteristic. Call-note 

 a hoarse " tsee." Alarm-note, metallic " chip." 



BREEDING -HABITS. Breeds in depression of ground on sides of 

 railway cuttings, country lanes, hillsides, rough pastures and 

 outskirts of woods, and haunts fertile, well-wooded districts. 

 Nest. Substantially built of dry grasses and bents, with moss 

 in foundation, lined finer grasses and varying amount of hair. 

 Eggs. Usually 4 to 6, rarely 7 or even 8 ; extraordinarily variable. 

 Three mam types are reddish, brown, or grey in general appear- 

 ance, but in each type eggs may be uniformly speckled, with 

 well-defined zone or cap, or with blotches and streaks. Finely 

 spotted eggs also have frequently a black hair-streak. Ground- 

 colour varies from pale blue to pinkish, greenish, brownish or 

 grey. Scarce varieties show few or no markings on blue ground. 

 Average of 174 eggs, 20.09 X 15.1 mm. Breeding-season. 



