336 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS. 



wings and tail) takes place Jan.-March. Plumage as winter, but 

 streaks on lower-throat and upper-breast usually more numerous 

 and prominent. Abrasion makes upper-parts more greyish-brown 

 and under-parts whiter. N.B. In some individuals the wings 

 and tail seem not to moult in autumn and in some they appear not 

 to moult in spring ; it is possible therefore that the wings and tail 

 only moult once a year. 



Nestling. (Not examined.) 



Juvenile. Much like adult but more yellowish tawny-brown 

 on upper-parts especially on rump ; tips of tail-feathers and edges 

 of secondaries and wing-coverts also more tawny ; chin and throat 

 tawny-buff not white and without streaks ; rest of under-parts 

 as adult but rather more tawny-buff. 



First winter. Differs from adult as the juvenile, rump 

 especially being more yellowish than adult, chin and throat white 

 but unstreaked. The juvenile body-plumage and lesser wing- 

 coverts are moulted July-Sept, (often not completely) but not rest 

 of wings or tail. Summer. A complete moult (including wings 

 and tail) takes place Jan.-March and after this they become like 

 adult. 



Measurements and structure. $ wing 90-103, tail 68-81, tarsus 

 27-31, bill from skull 21-24 (12 measured). $ wing 88-94. 

 Primaries : 1st minute, half to three-quarters as long as primary- 

 coverts, 3rd longest, 2nd .5-3 mm. shorter, but exceptionally equal 

 to 3rd, 4th 2-4 shorter than 3rd (always shorter than 2nd), 5th 

 5-7 shorter, 6th 9-11 shorter ; 3rd emarginated on outer web, 2nd 

 Avith notch on inner web. Secondaries 2-3 mm. shorter than 10th 

 primary, tips rounded. Tail rounded, 12 feathers, central pair 

 longest, rest graduated, outermost being 8-12 mm. shorter than 

 central, tips of feathers rounded, but sometimes inclined to be 

 pointed. Under tail-coverts about three-fourths as long as outer 

 tail-feathers. Bill very strong, broad at base, tip of upper mandible 

 slightly hooked and projecting. Nostrils mostly bare. Three 

 (occasionally four) strong rictal bristles on each side. 



Soft parts. Bill : upper mandible and tip of lower dark brown, 

 rest of lower pinkish-flesh ; legs and feet pale brownish-grey ; 

 iris yellowish -sepia. 



CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. For differences of A .a. orientalis 

 see under that form, A. a. zarudnyi (Transcaspia, Turkestan) is 

 more olive on upper-parts and paler on underparts. A. stentoreus 

 stentoreus (Egypt, Palestine) has 2nd primary shorter than 5t v , 

 3rd and 4th are emarginated on outer webs, and 2nd and 3rd have 

 notch on inner webs, A. s. brunnescens (Transcaspia, Turkestan, 

 Persia) is similar to last but paler and with a shorter and thicker bill. 



FIELD-CHARACTERS. Habits and coloration much as Reed -War bier, 

 but at once distinguished by large size. Song uttered from reeds or 



