360 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS. 



under tail-coverts much as in male ; tail-feathers browner, with the 

 white much duller and less in extent ; wing-feathers and wing- 

 coverts browner with tips and edgings very pale brown or whitish- 

 brown. Moult as in male. Summer. Moult as in male, after which 

 much like adult winter male, being browner and considerably less 

 barred than summer male and usually with less white in tail. 



Nestling. (Not examined.) 



Juvenile. Whole upper-parts brown, feathers with greyish 

 bases and rusty tips, with no greyish tips even on upper tail-coverts ; 

 lores pale buff ; ear-coverts pale huffish-brown ; chin, throat and 

 belly buffish-white ; breast buff ; flanks and under tail-coverts 

 pale greyish -brown, feathers tipped buff ; tail- and wing-feathers as 

 adult winter female ; greater coverts brown with buff edgings and 

 tips ; median and lesser coverts uniform brown. 



First winter. Male and female. Like adult winter female 

 but males are perhaps slightly greyer on upper-parts, wings and 

 tail, and females usually have no trace of barring on sides of breast 

 and flanks. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser and median wing- 

 coverts and some inner greater coverts are moulted in July, but not 

 primary -co verts or wing- and tail-feathers. Summer. Moult as 

 in adult, after which there seems no certain distinction. 



Measurements and structure. <$ wing 85-91 mm., tail 68-74, 

 tarsus 23-26, biU from skull 14-17 (12 measured.) $ wing 84-90. 

 Primaries : 1st one-third to half as long as primary -co verts, 3rd 

 longest, 2nd occasionally as long but usually as 4th .5-1 mm. shorter, 

 5th 3-5 shorter, 6th 6-8 shorter ; 3rd and 4th distinctly and 5th 

 very slightly, emarginated outer webs. Secondaries equal to or 

 rather shorter than 10th primary, tips rather square. Tail square 

 except that outermost pair are 4-5 mm. shorter, 12 feathers, tips 

 rounded. Bill fairly strong, culmen slightly curved at tip. A good 

 many rictal and nasal bristles. Nostrils not covered by feathers. 



Soft parts. Bill dark horn, base of lower mandible brownish- 

 flesh ; legs and feet brownish -grey ; iris pale brownish -yellow. 



CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. S. n. m,erzbacheri (west Siberia, 

 Turkestan) is, in the adult summer male, rather paler grey on upper- 

 parts but is often difficult to distinguish . In some plumages might 

 be confused with Orphean Warbler, but longer tail and different 

 wing-formula and whitish tips to upper tail-coverts (except in 

 juvenile) distinguish it. 



FIELD -CHARACTERS. Distinguished by its large size and pale colora- 

 tion and comparatively long tail. Slight barring of young bird in 

 autumn is not noticeable in the field. Rather skulking in habits 

 (H.F.W.). 



BREEDING-HABITS. Nests in hedges, low bushes or scrub as a rule 

 within a few feet of ground and only exceptionally at a height above 

 it. Nest. Built of bents and grasses, lined horsehair and fine 



