394 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS. 



(N.B. Under-parts thus with much more spotted appearance 

 than in adults) ; under tail -co verts and axillaries as adult ; tail 

 as adult ; wing-feathers as adult, but outer edgings of primaries 

 usually browner and of secondaries paler and less chestnut ; greater 

 wing-coverts as adult, but outer webs paler and browner (less 

 chestnut) and feathers with whitish tips and inner ones with whitish 

 shaft-lines at tip ; median and lesser coverts brown with buffish- 

 white tips and buff shaft -streaks. 



First winter and summer. Male. Like adult, but nape and 

 rump usually more tinged with brownish and not so pure grey ; 

 greater coverts with less chestnut edgings, and whitish tips and 

 usually one or two inner ones with white shaft-streak ; wing-feathers 

 differing slightly as in juvenile. The juvenile body-plumage, 

 median and lesser, and varying number of greater wing-coverts are 

 moulted in Aug. -Sept. but not wing- and tail-feathers nor outer 

 greater coverts. Female. White tips and shaft-streaks of greater 

 coverts distinguish it from adult female, the other differences 

 observable in male being scarcely noticeable. 



Measurements and structure. $ wing 140-153 mm., tail 100-110, 

 tarsus 31-34, bill from skull 23-24.5 (12 measured). $ wing 135-148. 

 Primaries : 1st about half primary-coverts, 3rd longest, 4th some- 

 times equal usually 1-2 mm. shorter, 2nd 5-10 shorter, 5th 5-10 

 shorter, 6th 20-25 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. 

 Outermost tail-feathers about 5 mm. shorter than rest, 12 feathers. 

 Other structure as White's Thrush. 



Soft parts. Bill in winter orange-yellow with tips of both 

 mandibles black-brown and most of upper mandible clouded same ; 

 in summer all yellow in male, but upper mandible with some brown 

 in female ; legs and feet brown ; iris dark brown. 



CHARACTERS. No subspecies. General coloration of upper-parts 

 together with white axillaries and large size distinguish it from 

 other Thrushes. 



FIELD -CHARACTERS. Frequents fields and open country autumn 

 to spring. Essentially gregarious. Feeds mostly on ground, in 

 loose flocks, all birds facing in same direction, but eats hedgerow 

 fruit in hard weather. Slate-grey neck and rump with chestnut- 

 brown back and brown wings and tail distinctive. In flight white 

 axillaries and under-wing conspicuous, as in Mistle-Thrush, but 

 build slighter and tail proportionately longer. Characteristic 

 harsh " teak, tsak, tsak," uttered when birds are disturbed and as 

 flocks pass from place to place. Song poor. 



BREEDING-HABITS. Nests usually in colonies, in woods of birch, 

 alder or fir, but also at times in gardens ; occasionally on wood- 

 stacks, rocks or huts and even on ground. Nest. Built of grasses 

 with layer of mud beneath inner lining, occasionally a few twigs or a 



