COLD WINTERS. 139 



the thermometer at the Paris Observatory recorded a cold 

 of nearly ten degrees below zero. 



Passing over the winter of 1776, of whose effects in 

 England we have learned enough to enable us to judge how 

 severely it must have been felt in those continental countries 

 where the winter is always more severe than with us, we 

 come to the severe winter of 1788-89. 



We have seen that in England hard frost began on 

 November 22 and continued till January 13. In France 

 (or rather at Paris) the frost began three days later, but the 

 thaw began on the same day, January 13. There was no 

 intermission except on Christmas Day, when it did not 

 freeze. In the great canal at Versailles the ice was two 

 feet thick. ' The water also froze/ says Flammarion, * in 

 several very deep wells, and wine became congealed in 

 cellars. The Seine began to freeze as early as November 

 26, and for several days its course was impeded, the break- 

 ing up of the ice not taking place until January 20 (1789). 

 The lowest temperature observed at Paris was seven degrees 

 below zero, on December 31. The frost was equally severe 

 in other parts of France and throughout Europe. The 

 Rhone was quite frozen over at Lyons, the Garonne at 

 Toulouse, and at Marseilles the sides of the docks were 

 covered with ice. Upon the shores of the Atlantic the sea 

 was frozen to a distance of several leagues. The ice upon 

 the Rhine was so thick that loaded wagons were able to 

 cross it. The Elbe was covered with ice, and also bore up 

 heavy carts. The harbour at Ostend was frozen so hard 

 that people could cross it on horseback; the sea was 

 congealed to a distance of four leagues from the exterior 

 fortifications, and no vessel could approach the harbour.' 



It was during the frost of 1788-89 that a fair was held 

 on the Thames. The river was frozen as low as Gravesend ; 

 but it was only in London that booths were set up. The 

 Thames fair lasted during the Christmas holidays and the 

 first twelve days of January. 



At Strasburg, on December 31, a temperature of fifteen 



