328 ENTOMOLOGY 



known faunae of the earth. Ashmead concurs in the view that the 

 Hawaiian fauna was originally derived from the Australasian fauna 

 the view held by all the specialists who have studied Hawaiian insects. 



Geographical Varieties. Darwin found that wide-ranging species 

 are as a rule highly variable. The cosmopolitan butterfly Vanessa 

 cardui presents striking variations in different parts of the earth, largely 

 on account of climatal differences, as is indicated by the temperature 

 experiments of several investigators. Standfuss exposed German pupae 

 of this insect to cold, and obtained thereby a dark variety such as occurs 

 in Lapland; and by the influence of warmth, obtained a very pale form 

 such as occurs normally in the tropics only. Our Cyaniris pseudargi- 

 olus, which ranges from Alaska into Mexico and from the Pacific to the 

 Atlantic, exhibits many geographical varieties, some of which are 

 clearly due to temperature, as experiments have shown. 



Geographical isolation is often followed by changes in the specific 

 characters of an organism, as witness the endemic species and varieties 

 of oceanic islands. Even in the same archipelago, the different islands 

 may be characterized by different varieties of one and the same species, 

 or even by different but closely allied species of the same genus. Thus 

 Darwin and Alexander Agassiz found that in the Galapagos Islands each 

 island had its own species of Tropidurus (a lizard) and had only one 

 species, with almost no exceptions. The same phenomenon occurs in 

 the two Galapagan species of Schistocerca S. melanocera and S. 

 liter osa. In melanocera, as Scudder discovered, "Three or four distinct 

 types are becoming gradually differentiated on the eight [now ten] 

 islands from which they are known." Snodgrass, who has made 

 important additions to Scudder's account, says, in regard to the two 

 species, "The specimens from the different islands show striking though, 

 in most cases, slight differences distinguishing the individuals of each 

 island as a race, from those inhabiting any other island. There are 

 two exceptions. Abingdon and Bindloe have the same form, and Albe- 

 marle supports at least two races. " Each of these two species presents 

 no less than -five racial types, to which distinctive names have been 

 applied. Though the relationships and evolution of these races have 

 been ably discussed by Snodgrass, definite conclusions upon these 

 subjects are still needed. 



Faunal Realms. The general distribution of life is such that 

 naturalists divide the earth into several realms, each of which has its 

 characteristic fauna and flora. As to the precise boundaries of these 

 faunal realms, zoologists do not all agree, owing chiefly to the fact that 



