EVOLUTION AND DEGENERATION OF INSTITUTIONS 109 



Independently of this decay of the old system 

 of communities, the formation of political com- 

 munes was attended by other phenomena of 

 degeneration : 



1. The suppression of all or part of the " rights 

 of usage " enjoyed by the inhabitants. 



The Einwohnergemeinde, being called upon to dis- 

 charge more and more onerous and complex func- 

 tions, were obliged to either partially or wholly 

 transform the communal possessions, to the per- 

 sonal use of which the people were entitled, into 

 property appropriated to the use of the public, 

 either directly (i.e. into churches, teaching insti- 

 tutions, etc.) or indirectly, as a means of obtaining 

 a revenue (Erwerbsquelle). 



2. The decrease in collective property. 



Many of the Burgergemeinde, although no longer 

 discharging public functions, retained part of their 

 estates, which were held by the members in joint 

 tenancy. On the other hand, as the increased 

 population necessitated the cultivation of the 

 Allmend, the original " right of usage " re- 

 sulted in many instances in a transformation of 

 the land into private property. 



This transformation, however, was not always 

 complete, and all the intermediate stages may be 

 traced between the old collective tenure and the 

 appropriation by individuals. 



5. Corporative property (Belgium). Here we will 

 limit the sphere of our observations to Belgium, in 



