THE AMERICAN FORESTS 169 



forests in the first place, it is claimed, may be traced 

 in most cases directly to mountain pasturage. The 

 provisions of the code concerning private woodlands 

 are substantially these : No private owner may clear 

 his woodlands without giving notice to the govern- 

 ment at least four months in advance, and the 

 forest service may forbid the clearing on the following 

 grounds: to maintain the soil on mountains, to 

 defend the soil against erosion and flooding by rivers 

 or torrents, to insure the existence of springs and 

 watercourses, to protect the dunes and seashore, 

 etc. A proprietor who has cleared his forest with- 

 out permission is subject to heavy fine, and in addi- 

 tion may be made to replant the cleared area. 



In Switzerland, after many laws like our own had 

 been found wanting, the Swiss forest school was 

 established in 1865, and soon after the Federal 

 Forest Law was enacted, which is binding over 

 nearly^ "two- thirds of the country. Under its pro- 

 visions, the cantons must appoint and pay the num- 

 ber of suitably educated foresters required for the 

 fulfilment of the forest law; and in the organization 

 of a normally stocked forest, the object of first 

 importance must be the cutting each year of an 

 amount of timber equal to the total annual increase, 

 and no more. 



The Russian government passed a law in 1888, 

 declaring that clearing is forbidden in protected 

 forests, and is allowed in others "only when its 



