infidels of the Campo Santo and of Santa Maria 

 Novella. In the fifteenth century the Council of 

 Constance forbad the laity to teach, under a penalty 

 of forty days' excommunication. In the sixteenth, 

 in Granada, Ximenes burnt, it is said, 80,000 books 

 of Arab philosophy, as Torquemada did for Hebrew 

 in Seville ; medical works, however, such as the 

 Colliget 1 of Averroes, and his Commentary on 

 Galen, were spared. 



With the greater renascence the second period 

 of Scholasticism, and indeed the Middle Ages 

 themselves are closed. With the fall of Constanti- 

 nople the stream of learning, driven eastwards in 

 the first period of the Middle Ages, set westward 

 again. Exiled grammarians now found their shelter 

 under the protection of the " literate tyrants " of 

 Italy, and with their spoil of manuscripts enriched 

 the libraries of Rome and Venice. The Universi- 

 ties of Bologna and Padua from their foundation 

 became notable for independence of thought ; and, 

 on the revival of learning, for their peripatetic 



1 " Colliget," Mr E. G. Browne tells me, is a corruption of 

 Kulliyyat. It does not exactly mean "Summary" (as com- 

 monly stated) but rather "General Principles" (Kull means 

 "the whole"; Kulli universal or general; fern. pi. Kuliiyyat). 

 It may also mean collected writings (e.g. of a poet). 



