THE WAYS OF LIFE 259 



Each letter is denoted by two figures, units in the upper 

 horizontal row and tens in the left vertical row. Thus 

 e is represented by 11, which involved two stamps one 

 stamp with the right foot and one with the left ; and n by 

 12, which involved two stamps with the right foot and 

 one with the left. The horses insisted on spelling phonet- 

 ically and in omitting the vowels ; thus ' Pf erd ' was 

 ' Ferd ' and ' Essen ' was ' S N ' to them. It may be noted 

 that Krall taught the alphabet and spelling on the old- 

 fashioned lines. Pointing to ' k ', he told the horses, 

 ' this is ka ' ; pointing to ' p ', * this is pe '. It is hardly 

 surprising that, even after six months' learning, the horses 

 were very shaky about the spelling of a word like brod 

 (bread), though they had strong practical reasons for 

 making sure of a word with such pleasant associations. 



Let us note, however, one of the spelling tests. Krall 

 asked Muhamed if he wished a carrot, and got the usual 

 emphatically affirmative nod. ' Well ', said Krall, ' pay 

 close attention ; this gentleman's name is B-u-t-t-e-l 

 (spelling it), spell that '. Muhamed began with an ' h ', 

 presumably for Herr, being a well-bred horse, and then 

 wandered. Krall repeated with slow emphasis, Buttel, 

 and the horse answered, ' bdul '. To the question, Where 

 does the ' u ' come in ? Muhamed answered by stamping 

 twice. ' Good ', said Krall, ' then in the second place ', and 

 the horse answered, ' budl '. 



The verdict of several competent observers, such as 

 Professors H. Kraemer, P. Sarasin, H. E. Ziegler, Claparede, 

 Buttel-Eeepen, is to the effect that the horses do in some 

 measure understand what they are being trained to 

 do, that they do in some mysterious way calculate. 

 Several general arguments may be used in support of 



