194 



KNO\A/^LEDGE 



[September 2, 1895. 



and political geography, and thirdly, economic geography. 

 Higher geographical teaching is given in the College of 

 France, and in some special schools in the Faciiltes des 

 Lettres, rarely in the Facultes des Sciences. The views 

 of Prof. Levasseur were supported by Sefior Torres 

 Campos, and M. Drapeyron pointed out the value of 

 geographical walking excursions. 



In a paper " On the Training of Geography Teachers 

 in the Universities," Prof. Lehmann insisted on 

 the following requirements : outlines of mathematical 

 geography, general physical geography, general ethnology, 

 special descriptive geography, outlines of the history of 

 geography and the chief discoveries, instruction in the 

 use of methods of illustrating geographical teaching with 

 the aid of astronomical apparatus and diagrams, specimens, 

 models, ordinary and relief maps, pictures and diagrams, 

 a knowledge of drawing, the faculty of observation in the 

 field, and the art of teaching. The educated classes can 

 only attain that good geographical knowledge which is of 

 such great practical value to them by the Universities 

 doing their part in providing a sound geographical training 

 to intending teachers. 



Mr. A. J. Herbertson followed with a paper " On 

 Geography in Secondary Education and the Training of 

 Teachers therein." AVhile the elementary school teacher 

 usually receives some geographical instruction in the 

 training college, the secondary schoolmaster in our 

 country rarely has any. It therefore follows that the 

 artizan classes have a better geographical education than 

 those classes to which geography is of much greater 

 practical importance. The first step to be taken to remedy 

 this deplorable state of affairs is to train the teachers for 

 our secondary and higher schools, and to give geography 

 a standing as a degree subject in our Universities ; and 

 Mr. Herbertson suggested that a resolution be passed to 

 call the attention of Government and University authorities 

 to it, to ask for the adequate recognition of geography in 

 higher schools and colleges, and the proper provision for 

 satisfactory instruction both in secondary schools and 

 Universities. 



In a paper by Dr. Henkel (which was taken as read) 

 " On the Combination of Geography and History in the 

 Curriculum of Modern Sahools," illustrations of the 

 intimate connection of geography and history were given 

 from both ancient and modern nations, of which Great 

 Britain furnishes the most fertile and characteristic 

 material. Great Britain owes its greatness to the physical 

 basis of the ocean, as was the case with Ancient Greece, 

 and offers a great contrast to the political life of Asia. 

 Insular conditions were greatly assisted by Magna Charta. 

 The nation has a thoroughly Germanic character, and offers 

 a striking contrast between rich and poor. The mountains 

 of Scotland have been of great historical importance to 

 that country, while its oceanic climate has greatly affected 

 Ireland. The rivers of Great Britain have facilitated 

 marine intercourse. Thus everything conduced to the 

 material development of a great maritime power culmina- 

 ting in the eighteenth century, and assisted at a later 

 period by mineral wealth, steam, and industry. 



Mr. Mackiuder advocated the establishment of a central 

 school of geography in London, and Mr. Hooper spoke of 

 the work done by the London Chamber of Commerce. 

 Chief Justice Daly, Prof. Levasseur, Prof. Lehmann, 

 Mr. Mackinder, and Mr. Herbertson were appointed a 

 committee to prepare a resolution to be submitted to the 

 Congress. 



I'UOTOURAPHIC SUE^1;Y^NO. 



" The Application of Photography to Mapping " was the 

 title of a paper by Colonel Laussedat, which described the 



processes and instruments by means of which surveying 

 had been successively practised by the Greeks, the Arabs, 

 the Spaniards and Portuguese, and by the Dutch. The 

 " Dutch Circle," evidently derived from the Astrolabe, 

 came to transform the arts of geodetic and topographical 

 surveying. By the invention of the " Pretorian T.i,ble," 

 round the centre of which moved an " Alhidade," the 

 method of triangulation soon became general. The vernier, 

 the cross wires in the telescope, the spirit level, the per- 

 fecting of dividing machines, the theodolite, the filiar 

 micrometer, and the stadia, have all contributed to the 

 ease and accuracy of surveying. Topographical sketching 

 was greatly used in ancient and media>val times, and 

 during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries " bird's-eye 

 views " of towns, harbours, castles, etc., were generally 

 used in place of maips, and great artists executed views of 

 cities, sieges, and battle-fields, which were excellently en- 

 graved. The method of horizontal sections, first introduced 

 in France, may be mathematically accurate if a sufficient 

 number of points are included in the levelling operations, 

 and for this purpose the use of photography would be a 

 quick method. The views would be available for subse- 

 quent reference, and as guides in the construction of 

 horizontal sections, and in addition they have the incom- 

 parable advantage of rendering the different aspects of the 

 land surface features, and thus form a picturesque com- 

 plement to the general plans. M. Dechy insisted on 

 photography being only an auxihary to triangulation, and 

 Mr. Coles informed the section on the subject of his map 

 constructed from photographs of the Caucasus, in which 

 region surveys have been conducted by the aid of photo- 

 graphs and prismatic compass readings. 



Captain B. H. Hills, E.E., then read a paper " On the 

 Determination of 'I'errestrial Longitudes by Photography." 

 Following Dr. Euuge's method, in which instantaneous 

 exposures were made of the moon, and the reference stars 

 were allowed to impress their trails on the plate, a better 

 method of measuring and reducing the plate was adopted, 

 and a more suitable camera em^jloyed. The method of 

 reduction used was that of rectilinear co-ordinates, 

 which had been worked out by Prof. H. H. Turner 

 for reducing the plates of the International Photo- 

 graphic Star Chart. The longitude can be obtained from 

 one photographic plate with an error of about one second 

 of time. 



The last paper of the sitting was by Prof. J. Thoulet, 

 "On the Application of Photography to Oceanography." 

 The shifting and changing sandbanks along our coasts are 

 such a danger to navigation that it would be of great use 

 to possess plans of them at given times, and under given 

 conditions. This can be accomplished by means of pho- 

 tography during a single low tide, either from the land or 

 on board a vessel, even in motion. Any camera can be used, 

 and it is only necessary to know its focal length, and to 

 photograph along with the object of survey a point of 

 known elevation and known azimuth. 



Subsequently Mr. Coles described Colonel Stewart's 

 camera for producing photographs of the whole horizon, 

 and M. Janet spoke on the determination of longitudes 

 without instruments of precision. 



ANTABCTIC EXPLORATION. 



The question of Antarctic exploration was opened by 

 Dr. Neumayer by an elaborate paper " On the Scientific 

 Exploration of the Antarctic Eegious," in which, after 

 reviewing the history of Antarctic exploration in the past, 

 he insisted on the scientific necessity of a new exploring 

 expedition, with aims similar to those of Sir James Eoss. 

 The climatology of the globe could not fail to be advanced 

 by an expedition that remained within the Antarctic Circle 



