September 2, 1895.1 



KNOWLEDGE 



195 



during the winter. In Germany the advantages and 

 practicability of Antarctic exploration have been discussed 

 by eminent geographers, who are agreed as to its high 

 scientific value ; that amougst the sciences to be benefited, 

 terrestrial magnetism occupies the most prominent 

 position, and that the establishment of a magnetic obser- 

 vatory in the Antarctic regions for twelve or eighteen 

 months would be of great service to science ; but that if 

 there were simultaneous observations in both Polar regions 

 the best results would be obtained. Dr. Neumayer gave 

 a brief account of the calculations he had been engaged in 

 during the last ten years, to show the necessity for a 

 magnetic survey of the Antarctic regions. A gravity 

 survey and pendulum observations would furnish geodetic 

 data of the greatest importance. The study of glacial 

 phenomena would, too, be advanced by further knowledge 

 of the southern ice-cap, and the causes of the variability of 

 geographical latitude would probably be elucidated by 

 Antarctic phenomena, while zoology would be advanced 

 by further knowledge of the animal life of the southern 

 seas. The route to be taken ought to bo along the meridian 

 of New Zealand, or near the meridian of Cape Horn, or 

 near the meridian of Kerguelen Island. The last-named 

 route was resolved upon in April last by the Antarctic 

 Committee of the " Geographentag " at Bremen. The 

 author, in conclusion, hoped that the grand example set 

 fifty years ago by the British, French, and American 

 nations may be followed, and that three expeditions may 

 be simultaneously started on each of the three routes he 

 had named. This might result in one of the most noble 

 achievements of modern times. 



The President, after eypressing an opinion in favour of a 

 combined effort of nations, called upon Sir .Joseph Hooker, 

 the only survivor of Sir .James Ross's expedition, who 

 considered that in a new Antarctic expedition special 

 attention should be given to terrestrial magnetism, 

 meteorology, and fossils. 



Dr. John Murray supported a new expedition, for it would 

 add to our knowledge of the physics of the earth. Victoria 

 Land, he thought, was a real Antarctic continent and not 

 a series of islands. Gneiss and other continental rocks 

 were dredged by the Ohalh'ti;ier in its seas, and whalers 

 brought Kadiolarian ooze, etc. There was a low 

 barometer all round the Antarctic, indicating it to be an 

 anti-cyclonic area. Life was more abundant at one 

 thousand fathoms than in any other seas ; one hundred 

 species had been taken on two occasions, and these had 

 included large animals, and sixty per cent, were not found 

 elsewhere. He concluded that a littoral fauna had been 

 driven down into deep water by surface currents. There 

 was a great death of surface fauna which formed the food 

 of the bottom fauna. All civilized nations should 

 co-operate before the close of the century, and Great 

 Britain should lead. There should be a preliminary 

 survey of the exterior of the region, and then observatories 

 should be estabhshed for two winters, to be visited in the 

 summer. 



Sir George Baden Powell, M.P., spoke of the increase 

 of the trade of the southern seas requiring a better 

 knowledge of their currents, etc. He thought he coiild 

 pledge the new Parliament to face any necessary expendi- 

 ture, and Australia would help. He hoped a new Antarctic 

 expedition would be the crown of this Congress. The discus- 

 sion was continued by M. de Lapparent, General Greely, 

 and others. M. B. de la Cirye, M. de Gregorin, Sir 

 Joseph Hooker, Dr. John Murray, Prof. Neumayer, 

 Lieut. -Col. de Shokalsky, and Prof. Yon den Steinen, 

 were appointed a committee to prepare a resolution in 

 favom- of Antarctic exploration. 



ABCTIC EXPLORATION. 



On the subject of Arctic exploration Admiral A. H. 

 Markham read the first paper, the object of which was to 

 briefly survey the threshold of the unknown region within 

 the Arctic Circle. The routes by which this unknown region 

 might be approached were (1) Smith Sound, (2) Jones 

 Sound or Wellington Channel, (3) Spitzbergeii, (1) Franz- 

 Josef Land, (.5) New Siberian Islands (6) Behring Strait. 

 Our knowledge of Spit/.bergen we owe to Hudson, Sir E. 

 Parry, Leigh Smith, Gilles, and Tobiesen. It was safe to 

 approach from the action of the Gulf Stream, and the ice to 

 the north was smooth but moving south. Franz-Josef Laud, 

 discovered in 1872-73 by the drift of the " Tegethoif," and 

 visited in 1880-81 by Mr. Leigh Smith, is probably a large 

 land area, and so with its good harbours for wintering 

 ships is a promising route and had been adopted by the 

 Jackson Harmsworth expedition. Its western shores 

 should be first explored. The route of the New Siberian 

 Islands taken by Nanseu was not approved, as Admiral 

 Markham doubted the theory of that intrepid explorer. 

 These islands were, however, highly interesting from their 

 fossil trees and bones of mammoths. The old Greenland 

 route was adopted by Lieut. Peary, whose safety was now 

 in doubt. Each nation should iindertake the exploration 

 of a certain portion of the Arctic regions, and the results 

 of such a combined eft'ort would be for the advancement 

 of physical geography, geology, ethnology, zoology, 

 meteorology, and oceanography. 



General Cireely, in a paper " On the Scope and A'alue 

 of Arctic Exploration," after referring to its difficulties, 

 pointed out the commercial, scientific, and missionary 

 results of further exploring work in the Arctic regions, and 

 concluded an eloquent address by an appeal to Britain to 

 continue its great work. 



M. S. A. Andree then brought before the Congress his 

 project for reaching the Pole by means of a balloon. To 

 achieve this result the following requirements ought to be 

 fulfilled : — (1) The balloon should be of sufiicient carrying 

 power to enable it to carry three persons, together with 

 all necessary instruments for making observations, pro- 

 visions, etc., for four months, and ballast, all estimated to 

 weigh about three thousand kilogrammes. (2) The balloon 

 should be of such impermeability that it can be kept afloat 

 for a period of thirty days. (3) The filling of the balloon 

 must take place somewhere in the Arctic region, (i) The 

 balloon should be steerable to a certain extent. The 

 question, then, to be put to an aeronautical engineer is. 

 Can this be done '? He will be justified in answering, 

 Yes. M. Andree showed from practical experiments that 

 his requirements 1, 2 and 3 could be obtained, and he 

 had himself by means of a steering apparatus caused his 

 balloon, " Svea," of one thousand cubic metres, to deviate, 

 on an average, 27'' from the direction of the wind. This 

 was efl:'ectcd by providing the balloon with an adjustable 

 sail, and one or more guide-ropes, which are allowed to 

 drag on the ground. The balloon is thus made to move 

 with less velocity than the wind, and this difference is 

 utilized by the sail. The balloon will be balanced to 

 travel at an average height of two hundred and fifty 

 metres above the surface or below the lowest clouds, but 

 above surface fogs. Continual daylight, rapidity of travel, 

 uniformity of temperature, an unencumbered surface, 

 little snowfall and absence of thunder-storms, render 

 success in reaching the Pole, with a steady favourable 

 wind, highly probable. 



Admiral Markham objected that, even if such a plan 

 were successful, it would be confined merely to getting to the 

 Pole, and would not give surface facts. Colonel \Vatson 

 testified from Aldershot experiments and practice that 



