THE RELATIONS OF ANATOMY 363 



The anatomic writings which are ascribed to Hippocrates contain 

 many more facts, and these are much more correct; but, even from 

 them it is plain to be seen that a systematic study of the corpse 

 was not the basis of the facts contained in them. That dissections, 

 especially for anatomic study, were carried out by the Hippocratic 

 school, is open to strong doubt. 



From this time on, the slowly collected anatomic data are increased 

 by numerous physicians, philosophers, and naturalists, but even 

 these advances can hardly be referred to systematic dissection of 

 the body. It is especially striking that Aristotle, who had so much 

 at his command, and whom we thank for so much in zoology and 

 zootomy, knew as little about the anatomy of man as is found in 

 his writings. 



The data obtained by Herophilus and Erasistratus, who lived 

 between the middle of the fourth and the first third of the third 

 century before Christ, seem to me to show that they were the first 

 who made truly anatomic dissections on the human body. That 

 they opened the body cavities of many corpses is certain, but I 

 believe we may go further and say that they have dissected carefully. 



Unfortunately, hardly anything of their writings is preserved, 

 and just as little of Marinus, the precursor of Galen, whose twenty- 

 volume anatomy has only been preserved in Galen's abstract, as 

 have some facts concerning the advances of Herophilus and Erasi- 

 stratus. Thus it appears to me to be justified to let this epoch reach 

 to Galen. 



Galen of Pergamos, who lived in the third century of the present 

 era, was more student and compiler of extraordinary industry than 

 original investigator, but nevertheless he must be placed at the 

 apex of the second period of anatomic study, partly because he 

 brought together everything which had been determined before 

 his time, exercised critical judgment on it, and added to it his own 

 investigations, which, however, were only obtained on animal 

 material, especially apes; principally because the standard of 

 anatomic science codified by him remained authoritative for all 

 the cultured races for 1300 years and more. During all this time 

 his work remained the authority, an almost unique example in the 

 history of science. 



Several causes coincide to explain this striking fact. One of these 

 is, of course, the giant work which Galen performed. It seemed 

 built to last for centuries. The principal reason is that man hesi- 

 tated to lay hands on human bodies, and if in each century a few 

 physicians rose above such thoughts, where could they find a place 

 to carry on anatomic studies? Even a simple opening of the body, 

 "obduction," was not permitted. There were no "Anatomic Insti- 

 tutes." These were reserved for a later epoch. If, occasionally. 



