K\n\\ 1,1 DGi:. 



I-KHI<l'ARV, 191: 



CHI-:.MIS1 RV. 



By C. AiNswoRTii Miiviii.il. H.A. ioxon.i. 1 M.i'. 



I'RoniCTlON OF SOLID UXVdKN.-Sir James 

 Dcwnr has at length succi'i'dccl in solidifying oxytji-n by 

 ovapoialioii of the- li(|iiiil, as lias been done in tbe case of 

 hydrogen and nitrojien. and ho K'ves an account of his 

 cxpeiinients in the l^roc. Royal Sor. (1911, A LXXW. 

 589). The pure licinid oxygen was placed in an isolated 

 vessel, and the pressinv lowered at about the teniperalure 

 of the boiling licpiid nntil the element solidified to a transparent 

 jelly. The melting-point of solid oxygen, which was deter- 

 mined by means of a hydrogen tin rmomctcr. w.is fonnd to be 

 54' (absol.}. 



ALCOHC)L I'KOM WOOD WASH-; IN SWICDICN.— 

 .-\lthongh it is many years since the conditions for producing 

 alcohol fiom sawdust were ascertained, most of the factories 

 established for the purpose have met with but little connncrcial 

 success. Recently, however, the economic problem has been 

 attacked from another side in Sweden, and an interesting 

 account of the new industry is given by Mr. 1". H. Norton, in 

 a Consular report to the United States Government. 



In the preparation of cellulose from wood the waste 

 sulphite lyes contain about fifty per cent, of the wood 

 originally introduced into the boilers : and since about ten 

 tons of residual lye are left for each ton of cellulose made by 

 the process, the profitable utilisation of this waste material has 

 long been an industrial difficulty. These waste lyes contain 

 various sugars, including dextrose (glucose), together with 

 acetic acid, nitrogenous compounds, tannins, and the calcium 

 lignin-sulphonate, which is the main product formed in the 

 reaction. 



The sugars, most of which are fermentable, constitute about 

 one per cent, of the lyes, and it is from them that the alcohol 

 is produced. The liquid is first neutralised by the addition of 

 calcium carbonate and then fermented in the usual way by 

 the addition of yeast. The resulting spirit is separated by 

 distillation and concentrated by redistillation as in the 

 ordinary process of manufacture, and about six gallons of 

 one hundred per cent, alcohol are thus obtained from each 

 one thousand gallons of lye. or about fourteen gallons for each 

 ton of cellulose. 



This crude alcohol, which contains methyl alcohol and 

 other impurities, is used for various technical purposes, such 

 as heating, varnish making, and so on, and the Swedish excise 

 duties have been modified in its favour. If alcohol wme 

 manufactured in this way from all the sulphite works in 

 Sweden, there would be an annual output of three million 

 five hundred thousand gallons, but Mr. Norton doubts whether 

 Sweden could utilise this quantity of the crude product. 

 .■\bout eight hundred thousand gallons of alcohol could be 

 made in the same way from the waste lyes of the sulphite 

 works in Germany, provided that the economic conditions 

 were suitable ; but this, in the opinion of German chemists, 

 is open to question. 



In the direct preparation of alcohol from wood the finely 

 divided material is treated with dilute sulphuric acid under 

 pressure, so as to cause partial hydrolysis of the cellulose, with 

 the formation of dextrose. The liquid is filtered, neutralised, 

 and fermented with yeast, and the alcohol separated by 

 distillation. Mr. Norton states that about fifteen per cent, of 

 alcohol may be obtained from pure collulosc. and from five to 

 six per cent, from ordinary wood. 



THE COMPOSITION OI" SOOT.— The chemistry ot soot 

 is dealt with in a paper read before the Society of Chemical 

 Industry, by Professor Cohen and Mr. A. G. Kuston ij. Soc. 

 Clicni. hid.. 1911. .X.XX. 1360) and their results afford much 

 valuable information to the agricultvnist. Soot consists 

 chiefly of carbon, tar. and mineral matter, with smaller pro- 

 portions of sulphur and nitrogenous compounds, .and frequently 

 has an .acid reaction. The proportion of the various 

 constituents varies greatly with different factors, such as the 

 nature of the coal, the completeness of combustion and the 

 distance from the fire at which the soot was deposited. 



Compared with ordinary dniiii-slic soot the product from 

 f.ictory boilers is poor in carbim and volatile producls. such as 

 t.u' and ammonium salts, and contains much ash. and the 

 nearer the base of the boiler chinmey. the more pronounced is 

 this difference, since the high tetnper.iture prevents reccni- 

 densation of the volatile products. This is illustrated by 

 the percentage results of various analyses, of which the 

 following arc typical : — 



Speaking generally, the proportions of nitrogen, sulphur and 

 chlorine in boiler soot increase with the height of the deposit in 

 the chimney, whereas in the case of domestic soot there is a 

 decrease in these constituents. The value of soot as a 

 fertiliser depends partly upon its physical action in causing a 

 grc-ater absorption (by reason of its dark colour) of the sun's 

 rays, and thus raising the temperature of the soil. It also 

 helps to lighten heavy soils, while the presence of the sulphin- 

 accounts for its action in preventing the approach of slugs. 



Its nianurial value depends upon the small proportion of 

 ammonia or aimnonium salts which it has absorbed from the 

 volatile gases in the chimney. Taking the value of nitrogen in 

 fertilisers as about twelve shillings per unit, or sixpence per lb., 

 the value of domestic soot may vary from about _'4s. to £5 

 per ton, since the nitrogen in such soot ranges from about 

 two to eight per cent. The usual price paid for soot is £2 to 

 £i, so that the customer may or may not be purchasing 

 cheaply. 



Although it is not possible to determine the proportion of 

 nitrogen by any simple method, it has been found that the 

 more springy and bulky the soot, the greater the proportion 

 of nitrogen, and consequently the nianurial value. .\ good 

 domestic soot ought not to weigh more than twenty-eight 

 lbs. to the bushel, and it is recommended that the pur- 

 chaser should stipulate that the consignment shall contain at 

 least four bushels per hundredweight. 



With regard to the loss of coal carbon as soot, experiments 

 made by various chemists have shown that this amounts to at 

 least six per cent, of the weight of the coal in domestic fires, and 

 to about five per cent, in factory furnaces. On this basis, the 

 annual minimum loss of coal in the form of soot in the I'nitcd 

 Kingdom is estimated to be two million four hundred and 

 twenty thousand tons. 



Tlie proportion of soot deposited over a given area may be 

 estimated by determining the solid impurities deposited after a 

 tall of snow, and by a determination of the solid matter carried 

 down by the rain. I--xperimcnts made in both ways have 

 shown that the average deposit of soot o\er the whole of 

 Leeds corresponds to at least two hundred and twenty tons 

 per sfjuare mile in a year. 



GEOLOGY. 



By G. W'. TvKKiii.i.. A.K.C.Sc, F.G.S. 



ORIGIN OF RADIOLARIAN CHERT.— Many radiolaiian 

 cherts have hitherto been regarded as of deep-sea origin. 

 Their exceeding fineness of giain, freedom from terrigenous 

 material, and the abundance of their characteristic organisms 

 has led to their identification as fossil representatives of 

 sediments similar to the radiolarian oozes of the present ocean 

 depths. Many observers, however, have pointed out that 

 radiolarian cherts are frequently associated with shallow-water 

 deposits. Their freedom from any but the very finest 

 terrigenous material has milit.ited against the view that 

 the cherts themselves are of shallow-water origin. Mr. 

 F. F. L. Dixon, in discussing the radiolarian cherts of the 

 Carboniferous Limestone of Gower. Glamorganshire iOJ.G.S., 



