October, 1912. 



KNOWLEDGE. 



393 



The yeast is first suspended, for two or three days, in water 

 through which a current of air is passed, the effect of this 

 being to alter the proteins of the cells in such a way that they 

 may be subsequently dried without injury. Another process 

 is also used, in which the yeast is pressed, mixed with sugar and 

 dried at a temperature of 59°C. 



GEOLOGY. 



By G. W. TvRRELL, .A.R.C.Sc, F.G.S. 



THE NEW M.\DRID EARTHQUAKE.— The succession 

 of shocks designated collectively the New Madrid earthquake 

 began on December Iftth, 1811, in an area of the Central 

 Mississippi valley, and lasted for more than a year. For 

 continuity of disturbance, area affected, and severity, this 

 series of shocks deserves a place among the great earthquakes 

 of the world. Scientifically, this earthquake, occurring in a 

 low-lying alluvial region, may be regarded as a type exhibiting 

 in unusual detail the geological effects of great disturbances 

 upon unconsolidated deposits. Even after the lapse of a 

 centur>- the effects of the earthquake may still be studied. 

 A systematic record of the phenomena is made, for the first 

 time, by M. L. Fuller, in Bulletin 494 of the L'nited States 

 Geological Survey. The effects of the initial earthquake of 

 the series are thus graphically described : — " The ground rose 

 and fell as earth waves, like the long, low swell of the sea, 

 passed across its surface, tilting the trees until their branches 

 interlocked, and opening the soil in deep cracks as the surface 

 was bent. Landslides swept down the steeper bluffs and 

 hillsides ; considerable areas were uplifted, and still larger 

 areas sunk and became covered with water emerging from 

 below through fissures or little ' craterlets,' or accumulating 

 from the obstruction of the surface drainage. On the 

 Mississippi great waves were created, which overwhelmed 

 many boats and washed others high upon the shore, the 

 return current breaking off thousands of trees and carrying 

 them out into the river. High banks caved and were pre- 

 cipitated into the river, sand bars and points of islands gave 

 way, and whole islands disappeared." Fortunately the area 

 was very thinly settled ; and the houses, for the most part 

 built of logs, did not collapse suddenly, but gave the 

 inhabitants sufficient warning for them to escape. Hence 

 there was only a slight loss of life. 



A remarkable feature of the earthquake was the formation 

 of long canal-like depressions, which appear in reality to be 

 narrow, down-faulted blocks between two parallel cracks. 

 Similar fissuring in the river banks and in the higher bluffs 

 bordering the Mississippi lowlands resulted in great landslides. 

 A regional warping of the surface also occurred, giving rise 

 in some places to broad dome-like lifts ; in others to depres- 

 sions, now mostly occupied by peculiarly-shaped lakes, such 

 as Reelfoot Lake. Tennessee. Many of these lakes contain 

 trees still standing, but killed by the century-old submergence. 

 Some striking photographs help the reader to realise the 

 clearness with which the effects of this earthquake may still 

 be traced. 



METEOROLOGY. 



By John A. Curtis, F.R.Met.Soc. 



The weather of the week ended July 20th, as set out in the 

 Weekly Weather Report issued by the Meteorological Office, 

 was fair and dry at first, but became unsettled over England 

 generally, and rain w^as experienced in most localities. 

 Thunder was heard on the 14th, and there was a thunder- 

 storm at .Alnwick Castle on the 20th. Temperature was 

 above the average in all districts except England. N.E.. and 

 Ireland, \. The greatest excess was 4--3 in England. S.W. 

 Maxima exceeding 80' were observed in all districts except 

 Scotland. N., and in Ireland. The highest reading was 90° at 

 Camden Square on the 15th, with 88° at Greenwich, Tottenham 

 Bath and Clifton. The lowest of the minima were 37° at 

 Kilm.amock. and 38° at Balmoral, West Linton and 

 Marlborough. On the grass the temperature fell to 53^ at 



Marlborough and at Wisley. The temperature of the soil, 

 both at one foot and at four feet was above the average. 



Rainfall was greatly in defect very generally. The only 

 district where the amount collected was in excess was England, 

 N.E., where it was 0-19 inch above normal. In Scotland, 

 E., and England, N.W., the week was almost rainless. .At 

 only one station in the L'nited Kingdom did the total rainfall 

 for the week amount to one inch or upwards, namely, at 

 Alnwick Castle, 1 • 63 inches. Sunshine was in excess except 

 in Scotland, E., and England, N.E. The defect of 0-3 hours 

 daily (2%) in Scotland, E. is noteworthy in face of the fact 

 that the rainfall in that district was only 0-01 inch or 

 0-72 inch below the average. 



The mean temperature of the sea water round the coast 

 varied from 52^-2 at Lerwick to 67° -4 at Margate. 



The weather of the week ended July 27th was mostly 

 unsettled and rainy, with frequent thunderstorms. Tem- 

 perature was below the average in Scotland, E., England, 

 N.E., Ireland and the English Channel, but above it elsewhere. 

 The greatest variation was in England, E.. where the mean, 

 63-1, was 2°-4 above the normal. The maxima were much 

 lower than in the previous week, and exceeded 80° onlv at 

 Greenwich IS2^), and at Camden Square (81°) on the 24th, 

 the next highest reading being 79 at Margate on the same 

 day. 



In Ireland, N., the highest reading was only 68°. The 

 lowest readings of the week were 31° at Balmoral on the 23rd, 

 and 35° at Glencarron on the 25th. The lowest readings on 

 the grass were 29° at Balmoral and 34° at West Linton. 



The temperature of the soil did not differ much from the 

 a\erage. 



Rainfall was in excess except in Scotland, N. and W., and 

 in England, S.E. In many cases the excesses were large, 

 and in Ireland, S.. the total was three and a half times the 

 usual amount. At each station in this district rain fell on 

 each day, and the total collected at Cahir was 3 • 94 inches. 



Sunshine was in defect in all districts, by as much as 

 3-7hours per day (23%) in England, N.E., and 4-0 hours per 

 day (27%) in the English Channel. In seven districts, namely, 

 Scotland, E., England, N.E. and S.W.. Midland Counties, the 

 English Channel and Ireland, N. and S.. the amount of sun- 

 shine was less than half the normal. 



The mean temperature of the sea water was, as a rule, above 

 the average, and varied from 52° -4 at Lerwick to 65° -6 at 

 Eastbourne. 



The weather of the week ended August 3rd was very dull 

 and wet, with many thunderstorms. At Alnwick Castle very 

 large hail fell on the 29th of July. 



Temperature was below the average at every station. The 

 district values were in defect by amounts varying from 3°- 1 in 

 England, E., to 5° -8 in Ireland, S. The highest readings 

 reported were 72° at Greenwich, 71° at Camden Square, and 

 70° at Scarborough, Yarmouth and other stations. The lowest 

 readings were 30° at Llangammarch Wells, 31° at West Linton 

 and 33° at Markree Castle. On the grass the temperature fell 

 below the freezing point at many stations, the lowest reading 

 reported being 25° at Birmingham. The temperature of the 

 soil at one foot depth was below the normal; but at a depth of 

 four feet the readings were mostly abo\e the average. Rain- 

 fall was in excess in all districts ; very greatly so in some. In 

 England, N.W., and S.W., and in the English Channel, the 

 total collected was more than three times as much as usual. 

 Sunshine was in defect in all districts and the average daily 

 duration varied from 2-6 hours in Scotland, E., and England, 

 N.E.. to 5-8 hours (39 %) in the English Channel. 



The temperature of the sea water varied from 49° at 

 Lamlash to 66° at Eastbourne. 



The weather for the week ended August 10th, was again 

 very inclement, being dull, cold and wet, with many thunder- 

 storms. 



Temperature was in defect in all districts, by as much as 

 5° -9 in Ireland, S. In this district the mean temperature, and 

 also the maximum and minimum, were lower than the 

 corresponding values in Scotland, N. 



The highest readings reported were 73° at Greenwich and 

 Camden Square, 72° at Margate, and 71° at Norwich and 



