July 1, 1899.] 



KNOWLEDGE. 



157 



Numbers 12 and 13 being probably Indian, whilst the sun 

 is omitted from the background of Number 26, possibly a 

 reminiscence of the evil astrological repute of this " dark '" 

 and "ill-starred" sign. The Sagittarius of Number 14 is, 

 perhaps, the finest design of the aeries, but the Archer is 

 represented as firing a Parthian shot, and not, as in our 

 zodiac, shooting before him. Capricornus, Numbers 15 

 and 27, would appear to have the head of a gazelle rather 

 than of a goat. The fish-tail is very strongly emphasized 

 in both cases. The three designs for Aquarius are evidently 

 native, Number 17 being simply an ordinary lotah. 



Whether we owe to Jahfinglr or to his far more gifted 

 empress the original idea of employing the zodiacal sym- 

 bols as designs for coins, it must be admitted that they 

 have proved themselves admirably suited for the purpose. 

 There are few indeed in the long array of stiti' and formal 

 British coins with anything like the grace and beauty of 

 the best of these Moghul mintages. 



GALILEO'S TOWER AT FLORENCE. 



By W. Alfred Parr. 



FEW astronomers passing through Florence will 

 fail to pay a visit to the picturesque old tower 

 known as the " Torre del Gallo." This interesting 

 old building, situated on one of the hills to the 

 south of the city, close to the present Arcetri 

 Observatory, is supposed to have served at one time as an 

 observatory to Galileo. Whether this be so or not, and 

 it has been sometimes doubted whether the founder of 

 telescopic astronomy ever actually utilized the tower as 

 his observatory, the building and its vicinity possess so 

 many reminiscences of the great man that the astronomical 

 visitor cannot fail to have his interest aroused. 



One of the rooms of the tower has been fitted up as 

 a museum, and contains an interesting collection of en- 

 gravings, documents and other relics relating to the life of 

 Galileo. A photograph of the well-known painting which 





FiG. 1. — The Toi-re del Gallo, Florence; supposed to have been 

 used as an ObseiTatory by Galileo. (Photo by Brogi, Florence.) 



represents Galileo before the Judges of the Inquisition is 

 of special interest. The great astronomer stands before 

 the assembled dignitaries of the Church, and has just 

 pronounced his celebrated recantation of his theory of 

 the earth's motion, when averting his head he mutters : 

 "E pur si muove."* 



Some old instruments, dating from the time of Galileo, 



• " But it does moTe." 



are also exhibited here, but a far finer collection of old 

 telescopes, some of which were in the actual possession 

 of Galileo, is preserved in Florence at the Museum of 

 Physical Science. Nowadays every tyro in astronomy 

 possesses a telescope superior to Galileo's " optic glass," 

 and it is only when contemplating these primitive old 



Fig-. 2. — Museum in the Tori-e del GalK). The wooden staircase 

 leads to the platform on the top of the Tower, from whicli Galileo 

 is said to have made hi-^ observations. (Photo bv Brogi. Florence.) 



instruments that one fully realizes the greatness of the 

 man who, with such meagre optical means, was yet able 

 to achieve such far-reaching results. 



From the top of the tower a most magnificent panorama 

 unfolds itself, the view extending from the wooded heights 

 of Vallombrosa on the east to the distant Carrara mountains 

 on the west, while below, in the valley of the Amo, ilea 

 Florence. 



Not far from the Torre del Gallo is situated the Villa of 

 Galileo, where the great Florentine passed the closing 

 years of his life, latterly deprived of sight but surrounded 

 by a few faithful friends. It is here that he was visited 

 by Milton in the year 1638, and here he died in 1642. 



Refrigeration is one of the most recent, and at the same 

 time one of the most important applications of mechanical 

 engineering on board ship. It is not yet twenty years 

 since the frozen meat trade was begun between Australia 

 and England. At the outset comparatively small cargoes 

 were carried, but as machines were improved and experi- 

 ence was enlarged so larger cargoes were carried, and a 

 new branch of the shipping industry was created. The 

 first refrigerators were designed to deal with one hundred 

 and fifty tons of meat. Now machines are constructed 

 capable of dealing with three thousand tons, while they 

 occupy only two and a half times the space and consume 

 about three times the coal required for the first machines. 

 Sir William White has recently pointed out that in 1881 

 about fourteen thousand carcases were brought to this 

 country from the Colonies ; in 189D he anticipates that 

 from eighteen to nineteen millions will be delivered from 

 the Colonies and various parts of the world. In addition 

 to meat, large quantities of butter, fruit and other perish- 

 able cargoes are now carried from the far ends of the earth 

 and delivered in good condition. 



Mr. E. A. Emerson has communicated to the Academy 

 of Sciences, Nebraska, some interesting obaervationa 



