292 LANGUAGE IN OTHER ANIMALS. 



the result of (a) self-tuition or of (6) man's instruction or 

 training. In both cases its variety is to be remarked upon, 

 and, just as in man, this variety which involves expressive- 

 ness or the range thereof is frequently, if not always, in 

 proportion to the degree of cultivation or education of the 

 faculty. 



The interpretation of animal language, in its varied forms, 

 is of the utmost importance in relation to the discrimination 

 of motive. It is, however, beset with difficulties, which arise 

 mainly from the following causes or sources : 



1. The significance of animal language has been little 

 studied by man. 



2. The same feelings or thoughts are expressed in an 

 infinite variety of ways, not only 



a. In different tribes, genera, or species, but 

 &. In different individuals of the same species 

 different members of the same family dif- 

 ferent offspring of the same parents. 



c. In different sexes of the same species. 



d. In the same individual at the same time, as well 



as at different ages or times, or under different 

 circumstances. 



3. The same outward expression may arise from or indi- 

 cate very different mental states. 



4. Other animals than man in proportion to their dif- 

 ference in structure and habits do not necessarily express 

 the same mental states in the same way. 



5. Even in man there are differences in the modes of 

 expression of the same feelings or thoughts : e.g. 



a. In the infant and the adult. 



6. In the philosopher and the savage. 



c. In health and disease. 



6. In other animals, as in man, there is a wonderful 

 power of represssion or inhibition of natural expression ; so 

 that real feelings and thoughts are successfully concealed. 



7. There is, further, a power of assumption of expressions 

 that are intended to deceive man or other animals as to the 

 real mental condition. 



8. One feeling frequently expresses itself by, or leads to 3 



