ETHICS AND ALTRUISM 269 



abolished when tribes became consolidated into a 

 nation, and it became impossible to continue to carry 

 out the custom, as a national law, on account of the 

 physical obstacles. In fact, by the time the members 

 of primitive tribes had evolved sufficient brain power 

 to combine into nations, they had, also, subjectively 

 created a superior authority who did not, in their 

 opinion, require a sacrifice so absurd as the killing 

 of innocent females of another tribe. These advances 

 in morals and brain power are simultaneous. The 

 principle applies, not only to the barbarians and 

 savages, but in the days of slavery it was not consid- 

 ered, in otherwise civilized countries, a crime to enslave 

 those of a foreign race, but to enslave those of the same 

 race was a heinous crime. Thus the roots of our own 

 customs reach back into savagery. 



The nearer society comes to perceiving the truth, 

 everywhere apparent to high intellects, the greater 

 the number of functions it develops; and, therefore, 

 the higher will become the civilization. That civiliza- 

 tion is high, where individual opportunity for growth 

 in intellect, altruism, and longevity are great, and 

 that this individualism is at the same time sub- 

 ordinated, in the proper degree, to the welfare of the 

 aggregate. 



When man obtains the right of freedom, the right 

 to enjoy the fruits of his own labor, without the fear 

 of exploitation, then happiness naturally follows. He 

 must have freedom of mind and conscience. All he 

 can ask of the state is, that it will protect him in 

 his natural rights, in return for what he contributes 

 to the welfare of the state. Such an adjustment will 

 produce a stronger bond to society, than any other. 



Paine says, "The more perfect civilization is, the 



