74. ON SOILS AND SUBSOILS SUITABLE FOR PLANTING. 



ftrtile. It ascends as high as the oak and beech on mountains, and in 

 moist soils it thrives with the alder. The maples can bear more shade 

 than the ash, and in some parts of Holland, on fresh, strong, miueral 

 soils, they prosper as underwood in oak forests, but they cannot bear 

 shade like the beech or hornbeam, and, on the whole, need much sunlight. 

 When they grow in shade, the ground must be exceedingly favorable. 

 For this reason, they are not met with in extensive pure timber forests, 

 but often on rich soils, especially lime, scattered among beeches, singly 

 or in groups. 



As standards in composition forests thoy (especially the sycamore) 

 yield a wood much valued for cabinet making and carving. Here they 

 thrive on suitable soil, and do not injure the underwood by shading. 

 Even as a part of the coppice they return a good revenue, for they pro- 

 duce numerous shoots, and are not so much injured by shade as the ash 

 or elm. The maples love fresh, strong mineral soils, such as lime and 

 basalt — in short, such as the beech, but do not bear so much moisture 

 as the ash and elm. The maple grows chiefly on low hilly land and on 

 plains, and extends farther north than the sycamore, which seeks the 

 more mountainous districts, and grows at higher elevations. The syca- 

 more makes greater claims on the soil in mineral strength and moisture 

 than the maple. In dry exposed situations, or very near the sea, neither 

 of the maples shows a lively growth. 



The Elm has always been highly prized on account of the fine color 

 and texture of the wood, and its durability when exposed to the atmos- 

 phere. Like the oak, this tree has a tap-root, requiring a deep soil, not 

 too binding. It prefers a moist situation, but does not thrive in marshy 

 districts. Lime, basalt, greenstone, loam, and the better kinds of sand, 

 with a plentiful admixture of humus, are the soils best adapted for the 

 elm. It is little suited for pure forests ; grows well as standards, and 

 on rich soil bears the shade of standards fairly and shoots well from the 

 stool, although the power of reproduction soon gradually diminishes. 

 Along streams and in moist situations, elms are frequently pollarded for 

 the production of timber prized for cabinet-making, &c., the knots in 

 I3ollard timber being due to numerous arrested adventitious buds. 



Mixed forests of beech, ash, maple, and elm are found to thrive well, 

 and yield a larger revenue than either of them alone, and rules for their 

 cultivation and renewal are laid down iu detail. 



Hornbeam [Garpinus betuhis), like the beech, is chiefly used for fuel 

 in Germany, and is seldom allowed to attain large dimensions. From 

 its hardness of wood, it is more difficult to work, but gives more heat 

 than beech, and in sawing and cutting, tools lose their edge very soon. 

 It is used for cogs, screws, ax-handles, joiners' tools, shoe-lasts, and the 

 like. It is often regarded by the forester as an enemy, and, when once 

 it has gained a footing, it is tenacious of life. It steals into beech and 

 oak forests, especially when growing in fresh, humus soils, and prefers 

 the fertile plains and undulating hill-sides to the higher mountain-tops. 

 It is the hardiest of hard woods, and will withstand late frosts, damages 

 from gnawing animals, and other injuries wonderfully well if fairly 

 rooted. Its average life is eighty years. 



In general, the effect which the soil and subsoil have on the quality 

 of timber may be expressed shortly but scientifically as follows: The 

 combustible tissues of timber, or those liable to decay by exposure to 

 atmosjiheric or other agencies, are, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. 

 The absolutely necessary constituents of the ashes, or portions not liable 

 to decay, are iron, calcium, potassium, and sodium; along with these are 

 often to be found magnesium^ manganese, silicon, sulphur, and phos- 



