310 GRAZING INDICATORS. 



short, lasting 10 to 15 years on an average. Such cycles also occur when 

 overgrazed or worn-out pastures are permitted to "rest." A much more 

 important cycle is that of the double sun-spot period, namely, 22 to 23 years. 

 This is due to the fact that overgrazing has much more serious consequences 

 during maximum periods of drought, such as 1871-73, 1893-95, and 1916-18. 

 The effects upon the range and the herd are much more marked than when 

 overgrazing alone is concerned, but an enforced period of rest ensues, during 

 which successional processes bring about the restoration of the original grass 

 cover, unless again disturbed by overgrazing. It is this cycle which, in its 

 beginning, has been especially disastrous to the grazing industry of the West, 

 just as the subsequent and inevitable regeneration through succession offers the 

 solution of all overgrazing problems. In addition, there are major cycles of 

 overgrazing, such as are involved in the permanent migration of great herds 

 from one region to another, or in the appearance of new species or groups of 

 grazing animals. Some such cycle must have marked the reintroduction and 

 spread of the horse over the plains of the Southwest. The consideration of 

 such cycles is beyond the scope of the present treatment, and is reserved for 

 another place. 



The recognition of past and present cycles of overgrazing is of great practical 

 importance. Its greatest value Ues in the certainty that a range will return to 

 its normal condition once it is given a chance to regenerate. It also empha- 

 sizes the fact that it usually takes several to many years to really "wear out" 

 a range, and that the rate of recovery is roughly proportional to the length 

 of the period of overgrazing. All the statements agree as to the excessive 

 damage done to the range by buffalo, but it seems certain that the more or 

 less complete rest which followed brought about a fair degree of recovery in a 

 few years. This is not an excuse for overgrazing, since the latter always 

 involves a distinct economic loss, the amount depending upon the period 

 and the intensity, but it does make it clear that all overgrazed ranges can be 

 certainly and greatly improved by proper rest or rotation. This is the basis 

 of all range improvement, as is shown in some detail in the next section. 



RANGE IMPROVEMENT. 



History. The first proposal to improve the ranges of the West by rotation 

 grazing was made by Smith (1895:323), although suggestions for their im- 

 provement by planting cultivated species had been m^e by Bessey (1887, 

 1893, 1897), Georgeson (1895), and others. It is probe^le that the first 

 suggestion as to the good effects of resting the range came from the ranchmen 

 (Williams, 1898: 72), and it is not impossible that the practice of the buffalo 

 in leaving overgrazed regions had also led to this conclusion. In his two 

 papers of 1895 and 1899, Smith outlined the major features of range improve- 

 ment, while at the same time Williams (1897, 1898) proposed those which had 

 to do with the artificial treatment of the range. The system advanced by 

 Smith comprised (1) proper stocking, (2) rotation, (3) adequate water de- 

 velopment, (4) destruction of rodents, (5) destruction of weeds and cacti 

 (6) disking the soil, (7) sowing and planting, (8) provision of forage, and (9) 

 winter protection. He was also the first to organize definite grazing experi- 

 ments to determine carrying capacity and the effects of rotation. The method 

 suggested by WilUams involved (1) proper stocking, (2) harrowing the soil, 



