AGRICULTURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 157 



long, narrow strip, such as is seen everywhere on the continent 

 of Europe, and in this country in the French settlements along 

 the St. Lawrence. Each peasant had his strip by himself, sepa- 

 rated from that of his neighbor by a narrow baulk of turf ; but he 

 must cultivate it as the rest did in the winter field he must put 

 in winter corn, in the summer-end field summer corn, and the 

 fallow field must lie fallow like those of his neighbors. For, as I 

 have said, after the crop was gathered, the fences were removed 

 and the cattle admitted into the fields to feed upon the stubble 

 and the baulks of turf, of course no one person could be allowed 

 to interfere with the fencing and the pasturage of the community. 

 Fences were therefore, at this time, for the most part, temporary 

 rail fences, put up when the crop was planted and removed when it 

 was harvested, as is the case in parts of the South. The hedgerows, 

 which are so characteristic a feature of England at the present 

 day, did not come into general use until towards the close of the 

 Middle Ages. I find, however, in the fourteenth century, directions 

 given in regard to hedges, that they should be of willow or white 

 thorn showing that they were not uncommon as early as this. 



We have, therefore, as a general rule, a triennial rotation of 

 crops, consisting for the first year of winter grain (wheat or rye), 

 the next year of summer grain (oats or barley), while the third 

 year the land lay fallow. 



It must be understood that the year began at Michaelmas (Sep- 

 tember 29), which appears to have been the regular term for all 

 agricultural operations, as it still is, I believe, in England. The 

 year began at once, then, with putting in the seed for the winter 

 crop ; for this the ground had been prepared by a year of fallow, 

 and by a threefold plowing. The first plowing, called the " plow- 

 ing of the fallow " (zvarectatio), was regularly in April " when the 

 ground is broken " (cum terra fregerif), meaning, I suppose, when 

 it is dry enough to crumble and not clog the plow. Then after 

 midsummer came the " stirring " (rebinatid), as it is called, " when 

 the seeds have sprung up after the fallow plowing " (cum terra 

 pulhdaverit post warectum). This, it was said, should not be too 

 deep only enough to destroy the weeds. In the autumn manure 

 was spread upon the land, and it was plowed a third time for the 



