INDIA'S POVERTY AND ILLITERACY 15 



should. The Indian spade or "pharwa" is shaped like 

 a large hoe with a short handle. It takes less muscular 

 effort and accomplishes less work than an American 

 spade or shovel. But when we see how hard Indian soil 

 can bake and consider the fact that so few Indian farm- 

 ers wear shoes, we realize that the Indian type is better 

 suited to Indian conditions for digging than the Ameri- 

 can. When it comes to shovelling sand, lime, coal or 

 dirt it is not nearly so efficient as the American type. 

 Wherever an American shovel is used in India it is a 

 two-man job ; one man pushes and steers the shovel, an- 

 other has a rope attached at the lower end of the handle 

 and pulls on it. 



The grass cutting tool is generally a bit of old buggy 

 tire sharpened at one end and bent at the other end for 

 a handle. When grass is to be cut the man takes hold 

 of a handful of grass in the left hand and pushes the 

 cutting tool a little under the surface of the ground to 

 get all he can, root and all, so that a freshly cut hay 

 field has no stubble in sight, but looks as though it had 

 been harrowed. The method of cutting grass in India 

 is an interesting side light on the cheapness of human 

 life and the expensiveness of grass. 



The Standard Oil tin occupies an unique place in the 

 domestic economy of India. It used to be very cheap, 

 about five cents a tin. It is now worth thirty. It is 

 used for storing seed, jewelry, oil, water, in fact any- 

 thing that needs a water-tight container that can resist 

 white ants. When worn out the sides are used for roof- 

 ing houses and temples. 



Comparing the Indian farmer's capital invested in his 

 land with the investment of the average American farmer 

 the total is very small, and the investment per acre is 



