18 HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE. Part I. 



directs, that, if possible, it shall be placed at the foot of a mountain covered with woods, 

 in such a manner as to be exposed to the most healthful winds, and to enjoy the sun in 

 winter and the shade in summer. An east exposure, he thinks, is the best for this pur- 

 pose, ( Var. de It. R., lib. i. cap. 12.) Palladius proposes that, for the same purpose, the 

 villa shall front the south-east ; that the jrrcetorium, or master's house, shall be a little 

 higher than the rest of the villa, both to secure the foundations, and to have a more agreeable 

 prospect. (^Pal., lib. i. tit. 8.) It is probable that both these authors have Italy particu- 

 cularly in view. But Pliny extends his views further ; for he says, that the villa in w^arm 

 climates ought to front the north, in cold climates the south, and in temperate cli- 

 mates the east. {Plin. Nat. Hist., lib. xviii. cap. 7.) Columella is more particular than 

 any of the other authors, both in giving directions as to the situation of the villa, and 

 giving reasons for the situation he recommends. (Co/., lib. i. cap. 5.) 



81. The villa is divided into three parts, the urbaiia, the ruslica, and the fructxiaria. 

 All the particulars of these. Columella says, ought to be properly placed with respect to 

 each other. The urbana contained the apartments of the landlord ; the rustica con- 

 tained the kitchen, the houses of the labouring servants, the stables, piggeries, and poultry 

 houses, ponds for water, dunghills, on wliich, says Varro, some persons place necessary 

 conveniences for the family. ( xii.) Adjoining the villa rustica, in the residence of 

 opulent Romans, were placed the aviary, apiary, a place for dormice, a warren for hares 

 and rabbits, a place for snails, and a large enclosure or park of fifty acres or more for 

 retaining live deer and wild beasts taken in the chase. Thefructuaria contained the oil 

 and wine cellars, the places for the oil and wine presses, the corn-yards, barns, granaries, 

 store-houses, repositories for roots and fruits, &c. 



82. Both Columella and Palladius give directions hoiv all these parts should be situated 

 and constructed; but, though minute, they are not so explicit as to enable any one to 

 delineate their ground plan. The same may be said as to the directions given by these 

 author, and by Pliny (^Nat. Hist., lib. xviii.), respecting the laying out of the villa 

 urbana, and the apartments for summer and winter. The subject of designing villas 

 for the opulent belongs no doubt more to architecture than to agriculture ; and therefore 

 we shall refer, for details, to the plans given by Castel {jig. 10.) and other modern authors, 

 who have attempted to embody the descriptions of the ancient writers. 



83. CasteVs general arrangement of a grand Roman villa and its environs, is as 

 follows : 



1, Praetorium. 11, Omithon of Varro. 20, Mill driven by water. " 



2, Farm-house and offices. 12, Vivarium, or park for wild beasts. 21, Temple of Ceres. 



3, Canal, parting the farm from the 13, Small woody islands for peacocks. 22, Corn-fields. 



praetonum. 14, Place for turkeys{! ! ),ratner swans, 23, Vineyards. 



4, Stone-banks to the canal. and their keepers: turkeys being 24, Olive grounds. 



5, Bridges. natives of America, and conse- 25, Meadows. 



6, Museum. quently unknown to the Romans. 26, Orchard. 



7, River Vinius. ' 15, For geese and their keeper. 27, (larden. 



8, Part of the island surrounded by 16, Cochlearium. 28, Osier ground. 



that river. 17, Dormice. 29, Woods, &c. 



9, The other river. 18, Apiary. 30, Coppices. 

 10, Walk on the bank of that river. 19, Threshing floor and bam. 



84. It is remarkable that no directions are given as to the materials of which the villa 

 should be built. These would, in all probability, depend on local circumstances ; rammed 

 earth, timber, brick burned or only dried in the sun, or stone, would be taken according 

 to convenience. The remains of villas which have reached modern times, are chiefly 

 of brick stuccoed over. Pliny mentions walls in Africa and Spain, called formacii, the 

 formation of which, by cramming the earth between two boards, exactly agrees with the 

 French mode of building mud walls, called en pise. He also mentions walls of unbumt 

 brick, of mud, of turf, and frames filled up vdth bricks and mud. {Nat. Hist., lib. xxxv. 

 cap. 14.) 



SuBSECT. 2. Of the Servants employed in Roman Agriculture. 



85. The servants employed in Roman agriculture were of two sorts, freemen and slaves. 

 When the proprietor or farmer lived on the farm and directed its culture, these were 

 directly under his management ; in other cases there was a bailiff or overseer, to whom 

 all the other servants were subordinate. This was the case so early as Cato's time, who 

 is very particular in his directions respecting the care a bailiflP ought to take of the 

 servants, the cattle, the labouring utensils, and in executing his master's orders. 



86. The bailiff" was generally a persoyi loho had received some education, and could 

 write and keep accounts ; and it was expected that he should be careful, apt to learn, 

 and capable to execute his master's orders with a proper attention to situations and 

 circumstances. Columella, however, says that " the bailiff may do his business very well, 

 though he is illiterate." Cornelius Celsus says that " such a bailiff will bring money to 

 his master oftener than his book ; because, being ignorant of letters, he is the less capable 

 to contrive accounts, and is afraid to trust another, being conscious of fraud." {Col., lib. i. 

 cap. 8.) There are some other things mentioned by this author, with respect to the 

 bailiff, that are very proper, and show particularly the attention of the Romans. " He 



