Book I. AGRICULTURE OF THE ROMANS. 21 



many fallen olfves as can be gathered ; afterwards the early olives from which the smallest 

 quantity of oil is expected ; at the same time observing that these must be given sparingly, 

 that they may last the longer. When the olives are finished, he desires salt fish and 

 vinegar to be given, and besides, to each man a sextarius of oil in the month, and a 

 modius of salt in the year. (^Cat., cap. 18.) Columella, for this purpose, directs apples, 

 pears, and figs, to be laid up : he adds, if there is a great quantity of these, the rustics 

 are secured in no small part of their meat during the winter, for they serve for dripping 

 or fat. {Col, lib. xii. cap. 14.) 



SuBSKCT. 3. Of the Beasts of Labour used by the Romans. 



93. The labouring cattle used by the Romans, as well as by all the ancient nations, were 

 chiefly the ox, the ass sometimes, the mule for burdens, and but very rarely the horse. 

 The horse, however, was reared ; but almost exclusively for the saddle, the chase, or 

 for war. The respect for the ox which existed among the Egyptians, Jews, and Greeks, 

 was continued among the Romans, so much so that Varro, and after him Columella and 

 Pliny, adduce an instance of a man having been indicted and condemned, for killing one 

 to please a boy who longed for a dish of tripe. 



94. The breeding, breaking, feeding, and working of the ox are very particularly treated 

 of by the ancient authors. 



95. BuUs, says Palladius, " should be tall, with huge members, of a middle age, rather young than old, 

 of a stem countenance, small horns, a brawny and vast neck, and a confined belly." {Pal., lib. iv. 

 sect. 11.) 



96. The cows Columella " most approves of, are of a tall make, long, with very large belly, very broad 

 forehead, eyes black and open, horns graceful, smooth, and black, hairy ears, strait jaws, very large 

 dewlap and tail, and moderate hoofs and legs." (Col., lib. vi. cap. 21.) 



97. Breeders both of horses and cows, Virgil observes, should attend principally to the 

 make of the female. " If any one," says he, " fond of the prize at the Olympic games, 

 breeds horses ; or if any one breeds stout bullocks for the plough, he chiefly attends to 

 the make of the mother, who ought to be large in all her parts." (^Georg., iii. v. 49.) The 

 same maxim is enforced scientifically by Cline. (Commun. to Board of Ag., vol. iv.) 



98. For breaking and training cattle to the yoke, Varro and Columella give very parti- 

 cular directions. " To break bullocks," says Varro, " put their necks between forked 

 stakes ; set up one for each bullock, and give them meat from the hand ; they will become 

 tractable in a few days : then, in order that by degrees they may become accustomed to 

 the yoke, let an unbroken one be joined with a veteran, whom he will imitate ; then 

 let them go upon even ground without a plough ; then yoked to a light plough in a sandy 

 soil. That they may be trained for carriages, they should first be put to empty carts, and 

 driven, if convenient, through a village or town ; the habit of hearing frequent noise, and 

 seeing a variety of objects, will soon make them fit for use. ( Var., lib. i. cap. 20.) 



99. Training commences with the calf state ; and " calves," says Virgil, " which 

 you intend for country labour, should be instructed while their youthful minds are 

 tractable, and their age manageable : first bind round their necks wide wreaths of tender 

 twigs ; then, when their free necks have been accustomed to servitude, put real collars 

 upon them ; join bullocks of equal strength, and make them step together ; at first let 

 them frequently be eiuployed in drawing along the ground wheels without any carriage 

 upon them, so that they may print their steps only upon the top of ihe dust ; afterwards 

 let the beechen axle groan under the heavy load, and the pole draw iie wheels joined to 

 the weighty carriage." (Georg., iii. v. 163.) 



100. Labouring oxen iverefed with the mast or nuts of the beech or sweet chestnut, grape 

 stones and husks after being pressed, hay, wheat and barley straw, bean vetch and lupine 

 chaff, all parts of corn and pulse, grass, green forage, and leaves, 'ihe leaves used 

 were those of the holm oak, ivy, elm (considered the best), the vine, the poplar, &c. 

 The poplar leaves were mixed with the elm leaves to make them hold out, and when tliere 

 were no elm leaves, then oak and fig leaves were used. (^Cat., cap. 54.) The food pre 

 ferred before all others by Columella, is good pasturage in summer, and hay and corn in 

 winter ; but he says the food and manner of feeding differ in different countries. 



101. Oxen were worked in pairs abreast both with the cart and plough, and stood in the 

 stables also in pairs, in bubilia or stalls formed on purpose. They were carefully matched, 

 in order that the stronger might not wear out the weaker. They were yoked either by 

 the horn or neck ; but the latter mode was greatly preferred. 



102. Yoking by the horns. Columella observes, " is condemned by almost all who have written on hus- 

 bandry ; because cattle can exert more strength from the neck and breast, than the horns ; as in the one 

 way, they prei<s with the whole weight and bulk of their bodies ; whereas in the other way, they arc tor. 

 mented with having their heads drawn back and turned up, and with difficulty stir the surface of the 

 earth with a light plough." (Co/., lib. ii. cap. 11. 22.) 



103. Oxen, when in the plough, were not allowed to go a great way without turning ; 

 one hundred and twenty feet was the length fixed upon, and further than this it was 

 thought improper for them to pull hard without stopping. The Reverend A. Dickson 

 thinks it probable, that the breaks or plats for the different kinds of corn and pulse 



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