22 HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE. Part I. 



were laid out nearly of this length and breadth " (Husb. of the Anc, ii. 452.) ; and there 

 appear grounds for concluding that the case was the same among the Jews and Greeks. 

 It was thought proper that oxen, in ploughing, should be allowed to stop a little at the 

 turning, and when they stopped, that the ploughman should put the yoke a little forward, 

 that so their necks might cool. " Unless their necks are carefully and regularly cooled," 

 says Columella, " they will soon become inflamed, and swellings and ulcers will arise." 

 The same author directs that " the ploughman, when he has unyoked his oxen, must rub 

 them after they are tied up, press their backs with his hands, pull up their hides, and not 

 suffer them to stick to their bodies ; for this is a disease that is very destructive to working 

 cattle." No food must be given them till they have ceased from sweating and high 

 breathing, and then by degrees, in portions as eaten ; and afterwards they are to be led to 

 the water, and encouraged by wliistling." {Col., lib. ii. cap. 3.) 



104. In purchasm^ working oxen, Varro directs to choose such as have " spacious horns, 

 rather black than otherwise, a broad forehead, wide nostrils, a broad chest, and thick 

 dewlap." (Lib. i. cap. 20.) All the Roman authors agree that the best colour of the body 

 is red or dark brown ; that the black are hardier, but not so valuable ; that the hair shovdd 

 be short and thick, and the whole skin veiy soft to the touch ; the body in general very 

 long and deep, or, as Columella and Palladius express it, compact and square. The 

 particular parts they also describe at length in terms such as would for the most part be 

 approved by experienced breeders of cattle ; making due allowance for the difference be- 

 tween choice for working, and choice for fatting. They all concur in recommending 

 farmers to rear at home what oxen they want, as those brought from a distance often 

 disagree with the change of soil and climate. 



105. The ass was the animal next in general use. Varro says they were chiefly used for 

 carrying burdens, or for the mill, or for ploughing where the land was light, and that they 

 were most common in the south of Italy, especially in Campania. (Lib. ii. cap. 6.) He 

 gives directions for breeding and rearing them ; and states that the female should not 

 be allowed to work when in an advanced state of pregnancy, but that the male does 

 not improve by indulgence in labour. The foal is removed from the dam a year after being 

 foaled, and broken for labour in the third year. 



106. Mules, Columella says, " are very proper both for the road and the plough, provided 

 they are not too dear, and the stiff lands do not require the strength of the ox." " Mules 

 and hinni," Varro observes, " are of two kinds ; the first being the offspring of a mare and 

 an ass, and the second of a horse and an ass. A hinnus is less than an ass in the body, com- 

 monly of a brighter colour j his ears, mane, and tail like those of the horse. The mule is 

 larger than the ass, but has more of the character of that animal in its parts than the 

 hinnus. To breed mules, a joung jackass is put under a mare when he is foaled, and 

 being reared with her is admitted to her the third year ; nor does he despise the mare on 

 account of former habits. If you admit him younger he soon gets old, and his offspring 

 is less valuable. Persons who have not an ass wliich they have brought up under a mare, 

 and who wish to have an ass for admission, choose the largest and the handsomest they 

 can find, from a good breed." {Varro, lib. ii. cap. 8.) Mules are fed like the ass, on 

 spray, leaves, herbage, hay, chaff, and corn. 



107. The horse was scarcely, if at all, used in Roman agriculture, but was reared for the 

 saddle and the army, by some farmers. Varro and Columella are particular in their 

 directions as to the choice of mares, and breeding and rearing their young ; but as these 

 contain nothing very remarkable, we shall merely remark that the signs of future merit 

 in a colt are said to be a small head, well formed limbs, and contending with other colts 

 or horses for superiority in running, or in any other thing. 



108. The dog is a valuable animal in every tinenclosed country, and was kept by the 

 Roman farmers for its use in assisting the shepherd, and also for watching. Vari'o men- 

 tions two kinds : one for hunting, which belongs to fierce and savage beasts ; and one for 

 the shepherd and the watch-box. The latter are not to be bought from hunters or 

 butchers, because these are either lazy, or will follow a stag rather than a sheep. The 

 best colour is white, because it is most discernible in the dark. They must be fed in the 

 kitchen with bread and milk ; or broth with bruised bones, but never with animal food, 

 and never allowed to suffer from hunger, lest they attack the flock. That they may not 

 be wounded by other beasts, they wear a collar made of strong leather set with nails, the 

 inward extremities of which are covered with soft leather, that the hardness of the iron 

 may not hurt their necks. If a wolf or any other beast is wounded by these, it makes 

 other dogs that have not the collar remain secure. ( Varr., lib. ii. cap. 9.) 



SuBSECT. 4. Of the Agrictdtiiral Imj)letnents of the Romans. 



109. The Romans used a great many instruments in their culture and farm manage- 

 ment ; but their particular forms and uses are so imperfectly described, that very little is 

 known concerning them. > 



110. The plough, the most important instrument in agriculture, is mentioned by Cato as 



