24 HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE. Part I. 



to have known such ploughs, and refers to them in his Georgics. In the Greek monu- 

 ments of antiquity are only four or five examples of these. Lasteyrie has given figures 

 of tliree wheel ploughs from Caylus's Collection of Antiquities {Jig. 1 3. a and b), and from 

 a Sicilian medal (c). 



114 The urpex, or irpex, seems to have been a plank- with several teeth, used as our 

 brake or cultivator, to break rough ground, and tear out roots and weeds. - 14 



115. The crates seems to have been a kind of harrow ; 



116. The rastrum, a rake used in manual labour ; 



117. The sarculum, a hand hoe, similar to our draw hoe j and 



118. The marra, a hand hoe of smaller size. 



119. The bidens (bi-dens) seems to have been a two-pronged hoe of large size, 

 with a hammer at the other end used to break clods. These were used chiefly 

 in cultivating vineyards. 



liO The ligo seems to have been a spade (Jig. 14.), and the pala a shovel or 

 sort of spade, or probably a synonym. The ligo and pala were made of wood 

 only, of oak shod with iron, or with the blade entirely of iron. 



121. The securis seems to have been an axe, and the same term was applied to 

 the blade of the pruning knife, which was formed like a crescent. 



1 22. The dolabra was a kind of adze for cutting roots in tree culture. 



123. The reaping hook seems to have been the same as that in modern use : some were 

 used for cutting off tiie ears of far or maize, and these, it may be presumed, were not 



serrated like our sickles ; others for cutting wheat and 

 barley near the ground, like our reaping hooks. In the 

 south of Gaul, Pliny informs us, they had invented a reap- 

 ing machine : from his description this machine must have 

 borne a considerable resemblance to that used in Suffolk, 

 for cropping the heads off clover left for seed, and not 

 unlike other modern attempts at an engine of this descrip- 

 tion. (See Jig. 16.) 



1 24. There were threshing implements for manual labour, 

 and for being drawn by horses ; and some for striking off 

 the ears of corn (Jig. 15.), like what are called rippling 

 combs, for combing off the capsules of newly pulled flax. 



125. A variety of other instruments for cleaning corn, 

 and for the wine and oil press, are mentioned j but too 



obscurely to admit of exact description. 



SuBSBCT. 5. Of the Agricultural Operations of the Romans. 



126. Of simple agricultural operations, the most important are ploughing, sowing, 

 and reaping ; and of such as are compound, or involve various simple operations, fallow- 

 ing, manuring, weeding, and field-watering. 



127. Ploughing is universally allowed to be the most important operation of agri- 

 culture. " What," says Cato, " is the best culture of land ? Good ploughing. 

 What is tlie second? Ploughing in the ordinary way. What is *he third? Laying 

 on manure." (Cap. Ixi.) The season for ploughing was any time wheu land was not wet : 

 in the performance, the furrow is directed to be kept equal in breadth throughout, one 

 furrow equal to another ; and straight furrows. The usual depth is not mentioned, but it 

 was probably considerable, as Cato says corn land should be of good quality -for two feet 

 in depth. No scamni or balks (hard unmoved soil) were to be left, and to ascertain that 

 this was properly attended toj the fanner is directed, when inspecting the work done, to 

 push a pole into the ploughed land in a variety of places. The plough was generally 

 drawn by one pair of oxen, which were guided by the ploughman without the aid of a 

 driver. In breaking up stiff land he was expected to plough half an acre, in free land 

 an acre, and in light land an acre and a half, each day. Land, as already noticed 

 (lOvS.), was ploughed in square plots of 120 feet to the side, two of which made a jugerum 

 or acre. A similar practice seems to have existed among the Eastern nations, and is 

 probably alluded to in the book of Samuel (chap. xiv. 5. 14.), where Jonathan and his 

 armour-bearer are said to have slain about twenty men within half an acre, or literally 

 " half a furrow of an acre of land." 



128. Fallowing loas a universal practice among the Romans. In most cases, a crop and 

 a year's fallow succeeded each other ; though, when manure could be got, two crops or 

 more were taken in succession ; and on certain rich soils, which Pliny describes as 

 favourable for barley, a crop was taken every year. In fallowing, the lands were first 

 ploughed after the crop was removed, generally in August ; they were again cross- 

 ploughed in spring, and at least a third time before sowing, whether spring corn or 

 winter corn was the crop. There was, however, no limit to the number of ploughings 

 and sarclings, and, when occasioned required, manual operations ; the object being, as 



