Book II. IMPROVING THE BREED OF ANIMALS. 303 



which is the space between the thighs. The breadth of the loins is always in proportion to that of the 

 chest and pelvis. 



2046. The head should be small, by which the birth is facilitated. Its smallness affords other advantages, 

 and generally indicates that the animal is of a good breed. Horns are useless to domestic animals, and 

 they are often a cause of accidents. It is not difficult to breed animals without them. The breeders of 

 horned cattle and horned sheep sustain a loss more extensive than they may conceive ; for it is not the 

 horns alone, but also much bone in the skulls of such animals to support their horns, for which the butcher 

 pays nothing; and besides this, there is an additional quantity of ligament and muscle in the neck, which 

 is of small value. The skull of a ram, with its horns, weighed five times more than a skull which was 

 hornless. Both these skulls were taken from sheep of the same age, each being four years old. The great 

 difference in weight depended chiefly on the horns, for the lower jaws were nearly equal ; one weighing 

 seven ounces, and the other six ounces and three quarters, which proves that the natural size of the head 

 was the same in both, independent of the horns and the thickness of bone which supports them. In 

 horned animals the skull is extremely thick. In a hornless animal it is much thinner, especially in that 

 part where the horns usually grow. To those who have reflected on the subject, it may appear of little 

 consequence whether sheep and cattle have horns ; but on a moderate calculation it will be found, that 

 the loss in farming stock, and also in the diminution of animal food, is very considerable, from the pro- 

 ductions of horns and their appendages. A mode of breeding which would prevent the production of 

 these, would afford a considerable profit in an increase of meat, wool, and other valuable parts, 



2047. The length of the neck should be proportioned to the height of the animal, that it may collect its 

 food with ease. 



2048. The muscles, and the tendons which are their appendages, should be large ; by which an animal 

 is enabled to travel with greater facility. 



2049. The bones, when large, are commonly considered an indication of strength ; but strength does not 

 depend on the size of the bones, but on that of the muscles. Many animals with large bones are weak, 

 their muscles being small. Animals which have been imperfectly nourished during growth have their 

 bones disproportionately large. If such deficiency of nourishment originated from a constitutional defect, 

 which is the most frequent cause, they remain weak during life, Large bones, therefore, generally indi- 

 cate an imperfection in the organs of nutrition. 



2050. To obtain the most improved form, continues Mr. Cline, the two modes of breeding 

 described as the in-and-in and crossing modes have been practised. The first mode may 

 be the better practice, when a particular variety approaches perfection in form ; especially 

 for those who may not be acquainted with the principles on which improvement depends. 

 When the male is much larger than the female, the offspring is generally of an imperfect 

 form. If the female be proportionately larger than the male, the offspring is of an im- 

 proved fonn. For instance, if a well-formed large ram be put to ewes proportionately 

 smaller, the lambs will not be so well shaped as their parents ; but if a small ram be put 

 to larger ewes, the lambs will be of an improved form. The proper method of improving 

 the form of animals consists in selecting a well-formed female, proportionately larger 

 than the male. The improvement depends on this principle, that the power of the female 

 to supply her offspring with nourishment is in proportion to her size, and to the power 

 of nourishing herself from the excellence of her constitution. The size of the foetus is 

 generally in pfoportion to that of the male parent ; and, therefore, when the female parent 

 is disproportionately small, the quantity of nourishment is deficient, and her offspring has 

 all the disproportions of a starveling. But when the female, from her size and good con- 

 stitution, is more than adequate to the nourishment of a foetus of a smaller male than herself, 

 the growth must be proportionately greater. The larger female has also a larger quantity 

 of milk, and her offspring is more abundantly supplied with nourishment after birth. 



2051. Abundant nourishment is necessary to produce the most perfect formed animal, from the earliest 

 period of its existence until its growth is complete. As already observed, the power to prepare the 

 greatest quantity of nourishment from a given quantity of food, depends principally on tlie magnitude of 

 the lungs, to which the organs of digestion are subservient. To obtain animals with large lungs, crossing 

 is the most expeditious method ; because well-formed females may be selected from a variety of large 

 size to be put to a well-formed male of a variety that is rather smaller. By such a mode of crossing, the 

 lungs and heart become proportionately larger, in consequence of a peculiarity in the circulation of the 

 foetus, which causes a larger proportion of the blood, under such circumstances, to be distributed to the 

 lungs, than to the other parts of the body ; and as the shape and size of the chest depend upon that of 

 the lungs, hence arises that remarkably large chest, which is produced by crossing with females that 

 are larger than the males. The practice, according to this principle of improvement, however, ought 

 to be limited; for it may be carried to such an extent, that tho bulk of the body might be so dispropor- 

 tioned to the size of the limbs as to prevent the animal from moving with sutiScient facility. In animals 

 where activity is required, this practice should not be extended so far as in those which are intended for 

 the food of man. 



2052. The characters of animals, or the external appearances by which the varieties of 

 the same species are distinguished, are observed in the offspring ; but those of the male 

 parent more frequently predominate. Thus in the breeding of horned animals there are 

 many varieties of sheep and some of cattle which are hornless. If a hornless ram be 

 put to horned ewes, almost all the lambs will be hornless ; partaking of the character of 

 the male more than of the female parent. In some counties, as Norfolk, Wiltshire, and 

 Dorsetshire, most of the sheep have horns. In Norfolk the horns may be got rid of by 

 crossing with Ryeland rams ; which would also improve the form of the chest and the 

 quality of the wool. In Wiltshire and Dorsetshire, the same improvements might be 

 made by crossing the sheep with South Down rams. An offspring without horns, or 

 rarely producing horns, might be obtained from the Devonshire cattle, by crossing with 

 hornless bulls of the Galloway breed ; which would also improve the form of the chest, 

 in which the Devonshire cattle are often deficient. 



2053. Examples of the good effects of crossing may be found in the improved breeds of horses and 

 swine in England. The great improvement of the breed of horses arose from crossing with the dimi- 

 native stallions. Barbs and Arabians ; and the introduction of Flanders mares into this country was the 



