III. 



WATER FOR LIVE STOCK. 



735 



On clayey soils very little more is necessary than smoothing the surface of the excavation, and perhaps 

 watering it and beating it to a smooth surface with rammers. The pond being now formed the next 

 operation is to coat it over with coarse gravel to the depth of at least eighteen inches ; or what is pre- 

 ferable, chalk and flints with gravel; or, best of all, to causeway or pave it. It is also very desirable 



to pave or gravel the sur- 

 face for the breadth of at 

 least two yards round the 

 pond, in order to prevent 

 the cattle from poaching it 

 when they come to drink. 



4472. On clayey soils an 

 economical inode of form- 

 ing ponds is often adopted, 

 where gravel or stone for 

 paving is scarce. It consists 

 in employing the horse-shoe 

 form as the ground plan of 

 the excavation, and cutting 

 all the sides steep, or at an 

 angle of 45 or 50 degrees, 

 except the part answering 

 to the heel of the shoe {fig. 

 689 a), which is well gravel- 

 led or paved, as the only en- 

 I =^>i=:rv x/- - ii?->-^^^=i-^ ., '-^:;i:%;%^ ^ ' '^:=?:%;5^5^ trance for the cattle. The ex- 



i^^ yj^'^SSS?.- '\ ^^^^^^^^i''"- i>;^?^^^^^^ cavated earth serves to raise 



- ' "^' *=^^^ '' ^<^^^:-^^'^<^^^^^'>^..'i::^^i^ the high side of the pond {/;J, 



^ ^_ which is generally guarded 



) c^^t^ -*'~~T" '^""'^^^^^^5 / '^^^^^^^^^^^^^$^-^?-' '^y ^ fence, or a few trees. 



L ""^^^^-^-V'^;'/" ^.v^^^^S^^ 5 '^^^^^^$-^^^ The disadvantage of such 



^" " - . -^^ - ponds is, that one is re- 



quired for every field, or at 

 least for every two fields; 

 whereas a pond sloped on all sides may supply four fields, or even a greater number, {fig. 690.) 

 4473. The Gloucestershire ponds are made either of a square or a circular shape, and generally so situ- 

 ated as to furnish a supply to four fields, {fig. 690.) Three layers 

 of clay, free from the smallest stone or gravel, are so worked in 

 as to form an impenetrable cement. The whole is afterwards 

 covered with sand, and finished with pavement. {Gloucestershire 

 Report, p. 31.) 



4174. The Derbyshire artificial mcers, or cattle ponds, are made 

 in their dry rocky pastures, with great success. Having selected 

 a low situation for the purpose, they form an excavation ten or 

 twenty yards across, and spread over the whole a layer, about five 

 inches thick, of refuse slaked lime and coal cinders; then they 

 spread, trample, and ram down a stratum of well tempered clay, 

 about four inches thick ; and upon this they spread a second bed 

 of clay, in a similar manner, of the same thickness ; the whole 

 of the bottom and edges of the meer is then paved with rubble 

 stones ; and small rubble stones, several inches thick, are spread 

 upon the pavement. {Derbyshire Report, vol. i. p. 494.) 



4475. The situation of field ponds, where practicable, should be 



at the intersection of fences, so that one may serve as many fields 



as possible. This, however, cannot be the best situation in every case, because it may happen that water 



cannot there be collected. At the same time a low situation is not always desirable, because it may be so 



circumstanced that too much dirty water may run into it during rains. 



4476. Trees are frequently planted round ponds, and with seeming propriety, as their effect is beautiful, 

 and they shade the water from the direct influence ofthe sun during summer ; but in autumn their leaves 

 certainly tend to render the water impure for a time. As most leaves are of an astringent quality, perhaps 

 there may be no injury sustained by cattle from drinking such water at first ; but after some time the 

 leaves begin to decay, and occasion a sort of fermentation, which, till it subsides in the beginning of frosty 

 weather, renders the v/ater somewhat unhealthy and very unsightly. Leaves therefore ought to be drawn 

 off with long open rakes as they fall from the trees. 



4477. Wells, where no better method of procuring water can be devised, may be re- 

 sorted to, both for fields and farmeries ; but the great objection to them is the labour 

 required to pump up or otherwise raise the water, and the consequent risk of neglect. 

 Before proceeding to dig a well, it ought first to be determined on whether a mere 

 reservoir for the water which oozes out of the surface soil is desired or obtainable, or a 

 perpetual spring. If the former is the object in view, a depth of fifteen or twenty feet 

 may probably suffice, though this cannot be expected to afford a constant supply, unless 

 a watery vein or spring is hit on : if the latter, the depth may be very various, there being 

 instances of 300 and 500 feet having been cut through before a permanent supply of water 

 was found. {Middlesex, Surrey, and Hampshire Reports-) 



4478. The art of welLdigging is generally carried on by persons who devote themselves exclusively to 

 that department. The site being fixed on, the ground-plan is a circle, generally of not more than six or 

 eight feet in diameter : the digger then works down by means uf a small short-handled spade, and a small 

 implement of the pick-axe kind ; the earthy materials being drawn up in buckets by the hand or a wind- 

 lass, fixed over the opening for the purpose. Where persons conversant with this sort of business are 

 employed, they usually manage the whole of the work, bricking round the sides with great facility and 

 readiness ; but in other cases it will be necessary to have a bricklayer to execute this part of the business. 



4479. Sieining. There are two methods of building the stone or brick within the well, which is called 

 thesteining. In one of these a circular ring is formed, of the same diameter as the intended well; and 

 the timber of which it is composed is of the size of the brick-courses with which the well is to be lined. 

 The lower edge of this circle is made sharp, and shod with iron, so that it has a tendency to cut into the 

 ground ; this circular curb is placed flat upon the ground, and the bricks are built upon it to a considerable 

 height, like a circular wall. I'he well-digger gets within this circle, and digs away the earth at the 

 bottom ; the weight of the wall then forces the kirb and the brickwork with which it is loaded to descend 

 into the earth, and as fast as the earth is removed it sinks deeper, the circular brick wall being increased 

 or raised at top as fast as it sinks down ; but when it gets very deep, it will sink no longer, particularly if 



