THE STRUGGLE FOR THE LIFE OF OTHERS 335 



there are instances where more is involved. Apart 

 from their own offspring — in relation to which there 

 may always be the suspicion of automatism ; and 

 apart from domestic animals — which are open to 

 the further suspicion of having been trained to it — 

 animals act spontaneously towards other animals ; 

 they have their playmates ; they make friendships, 

 and very attached friendships. Much more, indeed, 

 has been claimed for them ; but it is not necessary 

 to claim even this much. No evolutionist would 

 expect among animals — domestic animals always 

 excepted — any considerable development of Altru- 

 ism, because the physiological and psychical con- 

 ditions which directly led to its development in 

 Man's case were fulfilled in no other creature. ^ 



*The answer to the argument in favour of automatism is 

 thus summarized by C. M. Williams: "(i) That functions 

 which are preserved and inherited must evidently be, not only 

 in animals and plants, but also and equally in man, such as 

 favour the preservation of the species ; those which do not so 

 favour it must perish with the individuals or species to which 

 they belong ; (2) that it cannot, indeed, be assumed that a 

 result which has never come within the experience of the 

 species can be willed as an end, although, with the species, 

 function securing results which, from a human point of view, 

 might be regarded as such, may be preserved ; but (3) that, 

 as far as we assume the existence of consciousness at all in 

 any species or individual, we must assume pleasure and pain, 

 pleasure in customary function, pain in its hindrance ; and (4) 

 that, as far as we can assume memory, we may also feel 



