5/2 



NATURE 



[October io, 1S95 



and the sections of science and letters were more clearly 

 separated than they had e\er been before. After study- 

 ing together during the first year, the science students, 

 during the second and the third years, were arranged 

 into two divisions, one of the physical and mathematical 

 sciences, the other of natural sciences, the chemists being 

 classified with the natunilists. In the second year the 

 mathematicians and physicists had a few courses in 

 common with the chemists and naturalists, but during 

 the third year were kept altogether distinct. 



The Go\ernment of Louis Philippe, which, in a way, 

 established the fundamental system of primary instruc- 

 tion in France, gave the Normal -School a firm standing 

 by instituting competition and new classes ; it also took 

 steps to provide proper accommodation for the students. 

 The buildings of the I'lessis, where the studies were con- 

 ducted, were falling to pieces, and it was recognised that 

 new ones would have to be provided. In 1838 the site 

 in the rue d'Ulm, now occupied by the school, was 

 chosen : the plans were prepared, and money required to 

 execute them was voted in the spring of 1841. 



But six years passed before the work was done, and it 

 was not until 1S47 that the school was transferred to its 

 new domicile, and the title of " Ecole normal superieure" 

 was inscribed over the door. M. de Salvandy presided 

 over the opening ceremony, and the director of studies, 

 Dubois, who succeeded Cousin in 1840, read a summary 

 of the history of the school. From that time until 1848, 

 when Louis Napoleon became President of the French 

 Republic, no change of importance occurred. The 

 first event which, of the whole of the religious re- 

 actions favoured by the future Emperor of the French, 

 foreshadowed rigorous changes in the school's regula- 

 tions, was the substitution of M. Dubois by M. 

 Michelle, rector of the Besanqon Academy, in July 

 1850. The new director took the rank of inspector- 

 general, and the school ceased to be represented upon the 

 Council of the University. A year later, M. \'achcrot, 

 the director of studies, followed Dubois, and then M. 

 Jules Simon, whose lectures were suspended at the end 

 of 1851, resigned his connection with the school. The 

 idea of suppressing the school altogether was afterwards 

 seriously considered, but fortunately it was not carried 

 into execution. Attempts were made to limit the 

 freedom with which subjects were dealt, and, for a 

 time, Protestants and Jews were refused admission. .\ 

 Ijctter period commenced in 1857, when Nisard succeeded 

 Michelle as the director of the school, and Pasteur became 

 the director of scientific studies. Five science F"ellow- 

 ships were created in the following year, and the holders 

 of them carried on researches under Henri Saint-Clair 

 Deville and Pasteur, whose investigations increased the 

 school's reputation. 



.\ftcr the affairs of 1870, which deposed Louis 

 \a|M)leon and established the third Republic, Bersot was 

 nominated director of the school by Jules .Simon, and 

 occupied that position until 1880. Under him, the con- 

 stitution of the school was sustained, and brought back 

 to what it was under the direction of Cousin and of 

 Dubois. Bersot died in 1880, and the fifteen years 

 that have elapsed since his death form the last period 

 in the eventful history of the Normal .School. M. Fustel 

 de Coulanges was the director from 1880 to 1883, and 

 since then the present director, M. (ieorges Perrot, has 

 occupied that position. In 1880 a section of natural 

 sciences was re-established, and this, with other improve- 

 ments in the internal organisation, has assisted the school 

 to the high place it now occupies. 



The second pan of the volume, from which m.-iny of 

 the foregoing details were obtained, is taken up with 

 biographies of the directors (each accompanied by a fine 

 photogravure of the subject) and of papers referring to the 

 men who have helped to develop the different departments 

 of the school. Passing over the former section, we arrive 



NO. 1354, VOL. 52] 



at an account of the mathematical w ork at the school, by 

 M. Jules Tanner)-. The high standing of this department 

 may be judged by the fact that, of the six members of the 

 Section of Geometry of the Paris .Academy of Sciences, 

 three belong to the Normal School. The Section of 

 .\stronomy contains two old students — one the present 

 Director of the Paris Observatory. The school has con- 

 tributed to this .Academy the names of Pouillct, Dela- 

 fosse, Pasteur, Jamin, \". Puiseux, P. Desains, Bouquet, 

 \'an Tieghem, Debray, Hebert, Tisscrand, Fouque, 

 Wolf, Darboux, Troost, Mascart, l.ippmann, Duclaux, 

 Picard. .\ppcl, and Perrier. M. Bcrtrand, the eminent 

 Perpetual Secretary of the .Academy, was one of 

 the first among the illustrious men who have made 

 the school what it is, and encouraged its students 

 to scientific investigation. .After him, Cauchy dominated 

 mathematical education at the school. Hermite, 

 Puiseux, Briot, and Bouquet were the close friends 

 and disciples of this profound geometrician, who, during 

 the early part of this century, gave mathematical science 

 so great an impetus. Of these, only Hermite survives, 

 and he celebrated his jubilee a few months ago. .Among 

 those who benefited by Hermite's instruction and counsel 

 stand out the names of Baillaud, Charve, Floquet, and 

 Pellet. .Appel, Picard, and C.oursat are among other 

 stiulents who ha\e brought credit to their alma iiiatcr. 



\"erdet, whose electrical and optical researches are 

 known to every physicist, became maitre de conferences,, 

 that is, professor, of physics in 1848, and held that position 

 until 1866. Mascart succeeded him for a few months,, 

 and was followed by Bertin-Mourot, who remained at the 

 head of the physical department until 18S4, since which 

 year M.M. \'iolie, Bouty, and Brillonin have filled the post. 



Of all the teachers that the school has had, none 

 have exercised greater influence upon it than Saint - 

 Claire Deville. For thirty years he devoted his activities 

 to the advancement of science at the school and to the 

 welfare of his students. He succeeded Balard in 1851 

 as maitre de confijrences in the section of chemistry, and 

 at once commenced to reorganise the work and develop 

 research. His advice to students who looked to books 

 to supply them w ith subjects of investigation, was : 

 " Fermez bien vitc tons Ics livercs, vencz au laboratoiie, 

 passcz-y toute la journt^e, failes-y n'importe ijuoi, rcprcnez 

 par exem))le minutiluscmcnt un travail classique ; vous 

 ctes intelligent, \ous nc tarderez pas ;"l trouvez c|uelquc 

 rc^sultat interressant." His numerous pupils profiled by 

 his invitation to work whenever possible in tlie laljoratory, 

 and many of them became his collaborators. .Among 

 these occur the names of Debray, Troost, Fouque, 

 Fernet, Lamy, Lechartier, Mascart, Isamberl, Ditte, Joly, 

 Andre, .Ango't, Dufet, Margottet, Chappuis, Parmentier, 

 all of whom have advanced scientific instruction and re- 

 search in France. Henri Deville never refused an in- 

 vestigator access to his laboratory, no matter what line 

 of work was taken up, antl the result was that not only 

 chemists, but students of natural history, astronomy, and 

 even an alcheniisl, availed themselves of the ojjportunity. 

 .After devoting the acti\ities of a lifetime to science, 

 Henri Deville died in July 1881, and by his death France 

 lost one of its brightest lights. 



Debray held a Fellowship at the Normal School 

 when Henri Deville became the maitre de conferences, 

 and the two great investigators worked side by side for 

 thirty years. He entered the school in 1847, and suc- 

 ceeded his master as professor at the Sorbonne and as 

 maitre de confc^rences at the school in 1875. He died 

 in June 1888. Chemistry is at present under the charge 

 of MM. ( iernez and Joly. 



The depailment of natural science in the school was 

 established in 1880. The school had not existed until 

 then, however, without paying any .ittenlion to the 

 study of that division of scientific knowledge. M. Dela- 

 fosse was maitre de conf(5rences of zoology, botany, geo- 



