ARMY SURGEON AT POTSDAM 57 



criticism which he must apply to the figures he has created, in 

 order to facilitate the discovery of errors. The cardinal point 

 in a lecture on anatomical details must therefore be its applica- 

 tion to the living and unblemished form. The student must 

 be trained to compare the appearance of a dead subject, that 

 has all its anatomical parts exposed, with living forms, and to 

 recognize anatomical details in life-models and works of art, 

 where they are more or less concealed, in order by such 

 exercises to sharpen his perception of anatomical errors. It 

 follows as a matter of course that anatomy for art-students 

 should only treat of such parts of the body as are of signifi- 

 cance for its external form. Instruction in anatomy must 

 therefore embrace : 



' i. Bones and such cartilages as are externally visible, form- 

 ing the fixed skeleton of the body, which determine the per- 

 manent relations of the several elements. This section, with 

 the exception of the cranial bones, must be treated in as much 

 detail as for medical anatomy, since even the smaller pro- 

 minences on a bone are important as points of insertion for 

 the muscles. 



1 2. Joints and ligaments, also treated in detail, notably in 

 regard to limitations of movements. 



'3. Muscles, briefly as regards the deeper, in detail for the 

 more superficial, with particular reference to their appearance 

 through the skin. Besides the functions of single muscles, 

 systems of composite movements must be included. 



' In addition, some instruction in animal anatomy should be 

 given, say on the horse, so far as our teaching apparatus will 

 admit.' 



The lecture gave complete satisfaction to the authorities, 

 and on September 30, 1848, Helmholtz was released from the 

 three years' military service for which he was still inden- 

 tured, and entered on a civil career. The transfer was 

 accomplished with little trouble, at the instance of ' the good 

 genius who then presided over science in Berlin Alexander 

 von Humboldt'. 



The post at the Academy of Arts carried a salary of 60 per 

 annum, and he was further appointed assistant at the Anatomi- 

 cal Museum, with a salary of 30, on the recommendation of 

 Johannes Miiller, who testified to his being as skilful in 

 anatomy as he had proved himself in physiological experi- 

 ment. 



Thus, in 1848, Helmholtz left the military service, to which 

 he had belonged since October, 1838, and he also ceased to 



