4S6 



NATURE 



[September 13, 1894 



section were on the behaviour of allylm.ilonic, allylacelic, and 

 a^thylidenpropionic acids when boiled with caustic soda solu- 

 tions, John G. Spenjer ; camphoric acid, \V. A. Noyes ; 

 double halides of antimony and potassium, Charles H. Herty ; 

 some peculiar forms of iron. T. H. Norton ; on the existence 

 of ortho-silicic acid, T. II. Norton ; volatility of certain salts, 

 T. H. Norton ; a new formula for specific and molecular re- 

 fraction, W. F. Edwards; action of nitric acid upon the 

 chlorides of zinc, bismuth, and cadmium, O. C. Johnson ; and 

 a convenient milk sampling tube, M. A. Scovell. 



Me:hani:al Science and Etiginecriiig. 



Dr. Mansfield Merriman delivered an address before Section 

 D, on "the resistance of materials under impact." He pointed 

 out that the science of the resistance of materials, as taught in 

 text-books, and used in the daily practice of every engineer, was 

 mainly that of static conditions where external force is resisted 

 by internal stress. The question of resistance to the impact of 

 falling bodies, likely to occur in machinery, on bridges, and to 

 a certain degree also in buildings, is recognised as important, 

 but it is seldom reduced to computation or made the occasion 

 of careful experiment. Even the fundamental principles and 

 laws regarding it seem often not clearly understood. Dr. 

 Merriman's address was an attempt to set forth the present 

 state of knowledge concerning impact, and to reconcile some 

 of the apparent paradoxes that often arise in the discussion and 

 application of its principles. 



The first paper before the section was on the crank curve, by 

 J. H. Kinealy, secretary of the section. In this paper a simple 

 graphical method was given for determining the velocity of 

 the piston of a steam engine for a given positon of the crank. 

 The next paper was on preliminary experiments on a new air 

 pyrometer for measuring temperatures as high as the melting 

 point of steel, by D. S. Jacobus. Experiments made at the 

 Stearns Institute show that three pyrometers gave concordant 

 results in measuring extremely high temperatures. 



Another paper, by Prof Jacobus, was on improvements in 

 methods of testing automatic fire sprinkler heads. Automatic 

 fire heads for extinguishing fires have now come into common 

 Dse. In these a valve is opened automatically in case of fire, 

 by the melting of a fusible solder piece, and the water from this 

 valve puts out the fire. The method of making tests on such 

 heads was described in detail. A paper, by Prof J. E. Denton, 

 was read on the ratio of the expansion of steam in multiple 

 expansion marine engines for maximum economy in East Kiver 

 steamers. This was followed by a paper by Samuel Marsden, 

 on experiments on the transverse strength of long-leaf yellow 

 pine. The results of numerous experiments were presented. 

 The last paper was by Elmo G. Harris, on the air lilt pump. 



Geology and Geography. 



The president of this section, Samuel Calvin, took for his 

 subject " Niobrara Chalk.' The Niobrara stage of the Upper 

 Cretaceous is well represented along the Missouri, from the 

 mouth of the Niobrara Kiver to the mouth of the I3ig Sioux. 

 East of the Sioux, beds of the same stage are found at various 

 points in Iowa as far eastward as Auburn in Sac country, while 

 fo'isils distributed through the drift indicate the former existence 

 of cretaceous strata at points many miles farther east than any 

 locality where they are not known to occur in place. The 

 general distribution of the Niobrara deposits covers an area 

 reaching from Western Iowa to the Kocky Mountain?, while 

 north and south it stretches from Texas to Manitoba, and pro- 

 bably northward to the Arctic Ocean. The address was limited, 

 however, to a description of some of the characteristics of the 

 Niobrara chalk exhibited in the somewhat restricted region 

 lying between the mouth of the river from which the formation 

 takes it! name, and the most eastern exposure of the beds at 

 present known, near .Xuburn, Iowa. 



Major J. W. Powell read a paper on the water resources of 

 the United Slates. Mr. Powell said that the ultimate development 

 of the United .States rested largely upon the most thorough 

 ntilisation of the water resources. This was conspicuously true 

 c( the vast arid and sub-humid regions extending from the great 

 plains to the Pacific coaM. There the almost boundless extent 

 of fertile land could not be utilised for agriculture without the 

 artificial application of water. In all cases, whether in arid or 

 in humid regions, the proper solution of the problem rested upon 

 the correct knowledge of the distribution and fluctuation of the 



NO. 1298, VOL. 50] 



available water. This study had been begun by the United 

 States Geological Survey, and was now being carried on. 



Prof. \V. J. McGee read a paper bv F. H. Newell, on the 

 Geological .\tlas Folio issued by the United States Geological 

 Survey. These folios are the final maps of the survey showing 

 the topography, geology, and the mines of the area^ covered by 

 the sheets. .-Accompanying the maps are the descriptions of the 

 same in popular rather than technical language, for the benefit 

 of the people. The folios have involved a great expense, and 

 represent probably the finest specimens of geological lithography 

 that are known. 



Mr. Joseph H. Hunt described briefly the minerals from 

 Paterson, Upper Montclaire, N.J., and the Palisades, and ex- 

 hibited excellent specimens, some of which showed in a beautiful 

 manner the process of alteration of one mineral into another. 



Dr. W. H. Dale, in a paper, entitled " Notes on the Atlantic 

 Miocene," showed th.at the vast deposits of phosphate rock of 

 South Carolina, which have yieldtd millions of dollars, are of 

 Miocene age, like those of Florida. 

 I Prof, i^pencer read an interesting paper upon the age of 

 Niagara Falls. He said that the first conjecture as to the age 

 of Niagara Falls was made by .\ndrew Ellicott in 1790, who 

 supposed the Falls to be 55,000 years old. .\bout 1S41 Ly.ill 

 estiuiaicd the age of the tails as 35,000 ye.irs. According to 

 Prof. Spencer, the evolution of the Falls was as follows : .\ little 

 stream draining the Erie basin only fell about 200 feet over the 

 brow of the Niagara escarpment, and in magnitude was just about 

 the size of the American Falls. This stream w.is not over one- 

 fiiurth the present volume of the great cataract, and, conse- 

 ! quently, was able to excavate the gorge at a much lower rate 

 I than at present. During this early history of the river the 

 I waters of the three upper lakes emptied through the Huron 

 b.asin by way of the Ottawa Kiver. I'he height of the Falls has. 

 advanced several times, and, owing to this change and the varia- 

 tion in the discharge of the water, retreat of the Falls has varieil 

 greatly during changing episodes. The computations of the age 

 have been based upon the>e changing conditions of elevation 

 and downfall of the river. The first episode, as before stated, 

 represented a small river, with a total fall of 200 (eet. This 

 lasted about 11,000 years. Then fell another episode, where 

 the height of the Falls was increased from 200 to 400 feet, suc- 

 ceeded by the entire drain.ige of all the upper Great Lakes. Kx 

 the same lime there were scries of three cascades, the lower 

 gaining on the upper, until finally they were all united in one 

 great cataract, much higher than that of the present time. Suli- 

 sequently the waters were raised at the head of Lake Ontario 

 so as to bring about the present conditions after a lapse of 17,000 

 years from the end of the first episode. The last or modern 

 episode lias lasted 3000 years undtr nearly the present condi- 

 tions. Thus we see that the age of the Falls is about 31,000 

 years, with another 1000 years added for an earlier condition 

 not given. It is now Soco years since Lake Huron emptied 

 I into Lake Erie for the first time. The land has risen about the 

 1 outlet of Lake Erie, and if the present rate continues, in 5000 of 

 6000 years the waters of the four upper lakes will be turned 

 jnto the Mississippi Kiver drainage at Chicago. 



Zoolo^ and Botany. 



Among the papers read before the section of Zoology were 

 the 'luestion of spider bites, L. O. Howard ; the pulmonary 

 structures of the 1 iphidia, Ixiwaid I). Cope; photograph- 

 ing fishes and other aquatic animals under water by means 

 of a vertical camera, .Simon II. G.ige ; a migration of 

 cockroaches, L. O. Howanl ; sexual characters in Scolytidz, 

 A. D. Hopkins ;noteson the genus Pi-rigoninns, Sars, Charlei 

 \V. Hargett ; the transformations of the lake and of the sei 

 lamprey, .S. II. Gage ; on the above-ground buildings of the 

 seventeenth year Cicada, J. A. Lintner. 



Prof. L. O. Howard described an extraordinary migration of 

 Croton bugs or German cockroaches, witnessed by htm on the 

 streets of Washington on a very daik day last summer. He 

 found that the migrating army, which was composed of many 

 thousands of individuals, consisted almost entirely of fcni.iles 

 carrying egg-sacs. | 



\\ a joint meeting of the sections of fiotany and Zoology, 

 Dr. Manly Miles read a paper on the limits of biological ex- 

 periments. .Vmong other things the speaker pointed out the 

 futility of most feeding experiments. During the discussion 

 which followed. Prof. Edward Cope remarked : " If Wcissmann 



