I40 



NATURE 



[DECEMbEK 6, 1894 



Broad-leaved trees are not absent, but so little developed in 

 compariion with the mighty conifers that they play no conspi- 

 cuous part except along the river bottoms, where the maple, 

 Cottonwood, ash, and alder thrive, and in the narrow interior 

 valleys, where an open growth of oak is found. Towards the 

 south and on the lower levels these broad-leaved trees again 

 become evergreen, as on the Atlantic side, but of different 

 tribes, and form a sub-tropic flora. 



Along the coast we find several species of true cypress, in- 

 cluding the well-known, although rare, Monterey cypress, which 

 clings to the gigantic rocks, and braves the briny ocean winds, 

 and with its branches twisted landward. Finally, flanking the 

 battle order of the Pacific forest, we find another section of the 

 army, composed of the northern extension of the Mexican flora, 

 mingled with which are species from the Pacific forest on the 

 west, and from the Atlantic on the east. 



The mesquile and some acacias, the tree yuccas and the 

 giant or tree cactus are perhaps the most characteristic and 

 remarkable species of the deserts of this region, while the high 

 mountains support dense forests of firs and pines. 



So far we have considered the forest only from the geo- 

 graphical and botanical point of view, and have watched the 

 history of its struggle for existence against the elements and 

 against the lower vegetation and other forces of nature. \ new 

 chapter of its life history, which we shall have time only to 

 scan very briefly, began when man came upon the scene, and 

 the economic point of view had to be considered. 



For ages man has taken sides against the forest. Not only 

 has he contested for the occupancy of the soil, in order to culti- 

 vate his crops or to make the meadow for his cattle — a most 

 legitimate and justifiable proceeding — and not only has he utilised 

 the vast stores of wood accumulated through centuries, for the 

 ten thousand uses to which this material can be applied, and 

 in the application of which he exhibits his superior intelligence, 

 but he has also shown a woeful lack of intelligence in the wilful 

 or careless destruction of the forest without justifiable cause, 

 and by just so much curtailing the bountiful stores provided 

 by nature for him and his progeny. Not only has he, like a 

 spendthrift, wasted his stores of useful material, but more — he 

 has wasted the work of nature through thousands of years by the 

 foolish destruction of the forest cover, wresting from it the toil- 

 somely achieved victory over the soil. He ha-^ destroyed the 

 grasses and even all vestige of vegetation, and has handed over 

 the naked soil to the action of wind and water. As the fertility and 

 agriculture of the plain is dependent upon the regular and 

 eijuable flow of water from the mountains, such as a forest 

 cover alone can secure, he has by barring the slopes accom- 

 plished in many localities utter ruin to himself, and turned them 

 back into inhospitable deserts as they were first before the 

 struggle of the forest had made them inhabitable. 



One would hardly believe that certain mountains in France 

 had ever seen a luxuriant forest growth, and could during his- 

 toric limes have been so utterly despoiled of their vegetal cover. 

 Yet axe, fire, and cattle have been most successful, and the con- 

 sequences have been felt not only in the mountains, but in the 

 valleys below. The waters in torrents have brought down the 

 soil and debris, covering out of sight the fertile fields of thou- 

 sarjds of toiling farmers. They themselves have brought this 

 ruin upon iliem on account of their ignorance of the relation of 

 forest cover to their occupation. Now, with infinite hard work 

 and ex|iendiiure of energy and money, the slow work of restor- 

 ing the lorest to its possession has begun. The first work is to take 

 care of the rain-waters, and by artificial breaks turn them from 

 rushing torrents over the bare surface into a .succession of gentle 

 runs and (alls by fascine and stone works. This work must be 

 begun at the very top ol the mountains, at the very source of 

 ihc evil, where the water receives its first momentum in the de- 

 scent to the valley. The fascines or wattles, laid across each 

 iivulet at more or less frequent distances from each other, and 

 fastened down fiy heavy stones, are made of live willows or 

 other readily sprouting species, which in course of time strike 

 root and become living barriers. The pockets behind these 

 breastworks gradually fill up, and the contour of the mountain- 

 si Ic is changed from an even and rapid descent into a series of 

 sieps with gentle fall, over which the formerly rushing waters, 

 giadually and without turbulence, find their way to llic valley 

 below. Where the incline is too steep, and higher breastworks 

 are necessary, they arc made of masonry, sometimes at great 

 expense. At the ba^e of these overflow dams an opening is left 

 (or the water to drain through, even aflcr ihc depression behind 



the rampart has filled up with debris, and soil has washed dow i 

 from above. Then, when in this way the soil has come to rest 

 forest planting begins, and gradually the torrent is " drowne.' 

 in vegetation.'' Sometimes, where on a steep moun 

 tain-side the naked rock alone has been left, it be 

 comes necessary to carry in baskets the soil to the trenche 

 hewn in the rock, where the little seedlings may take their fir* 

 hold, until they are strong enough to fight their own battle an ; 

 make their own soil, gradully restoring the beneficent condition- 

 which nature had provided before the arrival of man and hi> 

 senseless, improvident, self-destructive greed. By the irrational 

 destruction of the forest, first for the supply of timber, then 

 through the careless use of fire, by the clearing for unsuitable 

 farm use, by excessive grazing of sheep and goat, the mountain 

 sides themselves are not only dev.Tstated and made useless, but 

 fertile farms for two hundred miles from the source of the evil 

 are ruined by the deposits of debris, and the population pauper 

 ised and driven from their homes. Many millions of dollars 

 have been and many more will have to be spent before these 

 regions become habitable again. 



That we are working in this country towards the same con- 

 ditions is too well known to need rehearsnl. Go to the shores 

 of Lake Michigan, or visit the coast of New England, New 

 Jersey, Pennsylvania, down to the Gulf, and you can -sec the 

 destructive action of the shifting sands set loose by improvident 

 removal of the plant cover. Go to the Adirondacks, the high- 

 lands of Mississippi, or the eastern slopes of the Rocky Moun 

 tains, and aspects similar to those derived from France will meet 

 your view. 



What the farmer has brought upon himself here by excessive- 

 clearing, the lumberer, prospector, miner, or hunter prepare^ 

 in the farthest West hy reckless and purposeless use of fire 

 Burnt mojntain-sides, where no living thing can subsist in com 

 fort, cover not acres but hundreds of square miles in the westerii 

 country. While the first fire only deadens the trees or under- 

 mines their constitution, the second or third fire usually is 

 suflicient to kill what remain alive, and even to clean up the 

 fallen timber. That these bald spots are not more frequent 

 than they are, is only due to the short period of our endeavours 

 in disturbing the balance of nature. 



But as our nation prides itself on the rapidity of its develop- 

 ment, exercising to the utmost our constructive energies, so do 

 we excel in destructive and wasteful energies and tendencies, 

 and we shall come to grief with our resources much sooner than 

 some of our happy-go-lucky friends would like to make us 

 believe. While these exhibitions of American vandalism are 

 beyond the proprieties of legitimate warfare, there is not much 

 more propriety or intelligence visible in the manner in which 

 we levy tribute from the forest for our legitimate needs. 

 Forests grow to be used, but there is a great diflerence between 

 intelligent and unintelligent use. Improvidence and ignorance 

 characterise the pre^ent methods of using the forest growth. 

 The value of it is not even known. Of the 425 or more species 

 which are represented in the forests, not more th;in forty or fifty 

 at the most are found in the markets. .-Mthough, to be sure, 

 many of the species are of but little or no economic value, the 

 number of the truly useful trees is probably twice or three 

 limes as great as that actually used. Ignorance as to the 

 true value of them keeps many from little more than 

 simply a strictly local use, or from their most fit employ- 

 ment. The story of the black walnut used for fence 

 rails or firewood is well known. Six years ago the red gum 

 or liquidambar, now a fashionable finishing material, was 

 despised. Ten years ago large hemlock trees were mouldering 

 in the woods after the bark h.ad been taken fur tanning pur- 

 poses because the value of the wood was unknown. Cypress 

 and Douglas spruce cannot yet overcome the i)rejudice of the 

 market. On the other hand, collonwood and tulip poplar, not 

 long ago among the de.s[)ised or only locally used, can hardly 

 now be furnished in sufficient quantities, and the long leaf pine, 

 which had been bled for turpentine, was considereil an inlerior 1 

 material, which, as has lately been shown, is nothing but an 

 unwarranted prejudice. 



In a vague empirical way the choice of the useful has been 

 attempted, and only lately have we begun to systematically 

 study our forest resources, to determine the qualities and adapt- 

 abilities of our limbers, and to find out the conditions under 

 which they produce not only the largest amount but the best 

 quality of limber. 



Vet in ano' her direction do the forest users act unintelligently 



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