30n 



NA TURE 



[January 2^, 1895 



The principal reactions which occur in mud-waters may be 

 explained by the following formulae : — 



(I) RSO, + 2C = 2CO5 + RS, 



where K is an earthy alkaline metal. 



(*"; RS + 2CO, + H5O = H,S + RCOjCO.. 

 (3) RS + KCO3CO; + H-O = 2KCO3 + H,S. 



On the hydrosulphuric acid meeting with ferric oxide (FeoOj) 

 present in ihs surface layer of these blue muds the following 

 reaction occurs : — 



(4) Fe.Oj + 3H.S =2FeS + S + 3H.O. 



Part of the sulphur is thus fixed in the mud, and part, if there 

 be not sufficient iron in the mud, may escape into the water 

 above, where, meeting oxygen, it will be converted into sul- 

 phuric acid (H.SO4), and return into RSO^. The products 

 RCOjCO; in (2), and RCO3 in (3), or the bicarbonate and 

 carbonate of the metal are found in the water strained from the 

 mud. 



The increase of alkaline ammoniacal salts points, however, 

 to a further reaction, by which carbonate of lime is increased 

 in a slight degree, for as ammonium carbonate [(NH4)X0;j] is 

 formed by the decomposition of the albuminoids present, the 

 ^ulphatts in the sea-waler by this means are decomposed, sul- 

 phate of ammonia [(NH^j^SOJ and eaithy carbonates being the 

 result. 



In the red muds and clays, either from the abundance of 

 oxygen in the superincumbent waters, from the ochrcous mailer 

 present in the mud or clay, or from the organic matter being 

 small in quantity, the sulphide o( iron is either not formed, or is 

 after formation soon oxidised into ferric hydrate, which then 

 gives its characlerislic red colour to these deposiis. 



It may be accepted as the rule that muds containing a large 

 amount of organic matter relatively to the iron present invari- 

 ably partake o( the characteristic blue-black colour, whilst if 

 organic mailer be low in amount, or altogether absent, the 

 black sulphide is either not formed at all, or is oxidised into 

 peroxide of iron. 



Our altcnti.>n has been recently drawn to a most interesting 

 paper, read before the British Association, Edinburgh (1892) 

 meeting, by N. Andrussow, on the " Russian Exploration of 

 the Black Sea." ' 



The condition of the water in the Black Sea below the 100- 

 fathom line, in which hydrosulphuric acid and sulphides exist 

 in great abundance, i? due to the same action as that now being 

 carried on so widely in the formation of the blue muds on the 

 ocean floor, viz. the deoxidalion of the sulphates in the water 

 by organic matter, and not, as stated in Andrussow's paper, as 

 simply the decomposition-products alter death of a great number 

 of organisms. But a compound or double reaction appears in 

 this instance to be taking place, viz. — 



Urstly, on those portions of the bottom within a moderate 

 distance from the shore, ordinary blue mud containing sulphide 

 of iron (in large aamunl) is being deposited. 



StconJIy, in the rierp water, especially far from the shore, 



below a depth of 100 fa-.homs where the oxygen has been used 



up, the hydrosulphuric acid, not having enough iron present in 



the floating mud to combine with, or to fix it as sulphide of 



iron (FeS , is (ound in the free condition. At the same time 



there must be a large quantity of free or loosclycomliincd 



r^,\. .T..- -.,..\ ,n the water, the result of the deoxidalion of the 



anic matter, which naturally would ilicompnse 



ihcir inception (or as these are formed). That 



this i> pr<ji>aiily the case appears from the fact thai in the 



greater Hrpih« of the Black Sea, far fr.m land, there exists a 



ing prmcipally ol carbonate of lime, 



, which hold in soluti'n lime and 



ilphuric and carbonic acids. In the 



■il above we have the rationale of 



■ ' ■ |> wiler in Ihe Black Sea may be 

 thru in a state of continual change, Ihe alkalinity in this case 



iillt of an 

 I sent out 

 - iilrca.ty 

 -an C',e >• 

 I.K I'rof. 

 w'fc paper 

 ti '* ' " -*■:(''- > jH----»f 1.' ii- »l b ^ici> ..y./i/vj-i.', Januiry 



■ &9]. . I .ir c|iit<jme of the v;irioii« pjintft de4lt with. 



NO. 1317, VOL. 51] 



being due either to sulphides or carbonates in so far as carbonic 

 acid or hydrosulphuric acid predominates, and not wholly 

 to carbonic acid as in the open ocean, where sulphides 

 cannot remain permanent owing to the constant excess 

 of ox)gen present ; but it is evident that, since the 

 light grey mud consists principally of carbonate of lime, the 

 carbonic acid must, it may be on account of the prosure or 

 temperature, have had the advantage over the hydrosulphuric 

 acid. 



METEOROLOGICAL WORK IX AUSTRALIA."^ 



T^HE object of the present paper is to place before the Associa- 

 •*■ lion a brief and succinct account of meteorological work 

 in Australia. Mr. Russell has already told us, in his interest- 

 ing paper on astrnomicil and meteorological workers, lead 

 before the Association at its first meeting in Sydney in 1SS8, 

 what had been done in the early days of the mother colony, 

 and brings the history up to the year 1S60, or immediately fol- 

 lowing the commencement of the active work of the new ob 

 servaiory completed in 1858, an establi hment with which he 

 has been associated during the past thirty-four years, and over 

 which he has presided since his appointment as astronomer in 

 1870, on the death of Mr. Smalley in July of that year. 



It is unnecessary that I should travel over the same ground. 

 My intention is to carry on the his'ory of which Mr. Rus-ell 

 has already given us the opening chapter. Indeed, as regards 

 meteorology but little had been dine before the advent of Mr. 

 Scott, the fir.^t Director of the Sydney Observatory, in 1S58, 

 who, Mr. Ru'sell tells me, established twelve meteorological 

 stations, two of which, Brisbane and R'ckhampton, were in 

 Queensland, then forming part of New South Wales. Each 

 station was equipped with a standard barometer, dry and wet 

 bulb theimometers, maximum and minimum thermometers, and 

 a rain g^uge. 



Meteorological stations had previously — in 1840 — been estab- 

 lished at South Mead, Port Macqoaiie, and Port Phillip, Vic- 

 toria beirg then umier the Government of New South Wales. 

 The observations at South Head were kept up, but, I fear, not 

 in a very satisfactory or systematic manner, for filtf en years, or 

 until 1S55. At Port Phillip and Port Macqu,irie they are said 

 to have been discontinued alter six years. During Mr. Smallcy's 

 tenure of office several stations started by his predecessor, for 

 some reason oroiher, probably owing to his bad health, were 

 closed or allowed to lall into di-use. These were, however, 

 speedily le-established by Mr. Russell : and I may here men- 

 tion, as showing the active manner in which that gentleman 

 has prosecuted the work commenced by Mr. .Scott, that he has 

 now, in addition to the Sydney Observatory, thirty-five meteoro- 

 logical stations, having barometers, dry and wet bulb thermo- 

 meters, maximum and minimum thermometers, and raiit 

 gauges ; 139 stations furnished with thermometers and rain 

 gauges ; and 1063 stations having rain gauges. 



Tlie Sydney Observatory is equipped with continuous self- 

 recording barograph and thermograph, pluviometer andanemo 

 graph, made alter Mr. Russell's own designs, besides under- 

 ground thermometers at depths of 10 feet, 5 feet, 2 feet 6 inches, 

 and I inch ; an evapor.ition tank, or atmoineter, 6i:c. ; a record, 

 combined with the valuatile astronomical work being tione, 

 worthy of the oldest colony of the gnup, which lud alre.idy 

 gained distinction in its promotion of science by the D.nves 

 Point Observatory, erected in 17SS, and the celcbiated Para- 

 matta Oliservalory, established in 1S21 by Sir Thomas Brisbane. 



In Mr. Tcbliutt, Mr. Russell has found a must valu.-ible 

 coarijutor. That gentleman has not only carried out an ex- 

 tensive series of astronomical observations entirely at his own 

 cost, but also furnished his observatory with a complete meteor- 

 ological outfit. 



In Victoria there were only broken records of rainfall, 

 temperature, and weather, made chiefly by New South Wales 

 officials in Melbourne, from 1840 to about 1849, and of rainfall 

 up to 1851. In 1854 observations of barometer and tempera- 

 ture for astronomical purpo-es only, and of rainfall, were made 

 at the Williamstown Observatory, then in dmge of Mr. K. L. 

 J. Ellery. Meteorological observations were also made at 

 Melbourne by Mr. Brough Smyth, of the Crown Lands De- 



1 AbflrftCI of a Paper read before the Auitralanian Association for the 

 Adv.nncemcnt of Science, by Sir C. Todd, K.C.M.G-, F.K.S. j 



