78 DEVELOPMENT AND PURPOSE CHAP. 



tional, but that it does occur among apes and monkeys and 

 probably among some other mammals. 1 (2) That animals 

 vary their action according to the individual circumstances 

 of the case the relations in which they stand. Thus a 

 dog has been scolded or punished for lying on the sofa with 

 his dirty paws. He avoids it in the presence of his master, 

 but indulges in his absence, and pays no regard perhaps to 

 the presence of some more easy-going member of the family. 

 Mere habit, it may be argued, would have induced avoid- 

 ance of the sofa, or perhaps of the person who struck him, 

 and for reasons of this kind a less intelligent animal is 

 incapable of instruction unless of the most rudimentary 

 kind. A dog is afraid neither of the sofa nor of his master 

 nor even of the stick, but only of a certain expressive com- 

 bination of the three. It is of course possible to suggest 

 that the dog learns by habituation to respond to that par- 

 ticular combination, but the explanation wears very thin 

 when it has to be extended to account for every difference 

 which an intelligent dog will make in dealing with different 

 people and different things. The essence of the correlation 

 with which we are dealing is that it guides action in any 

 situation by reference to its special relation to the object 

 desired, and if an animal can vary its action in accordance 

 with such special relations, not once or twice as by happy 

 accident, but as a regular part of its behaviour, it must be 

 taken to have advanced beyond the stage of learning by 

 mere habituation. (3) Evidence of conscious correlation 

 may be derived from cases in which an animal performs a 

 novel action as the result of relations which it has experi- 

 enced. E.g. in a well-known story a dog chases a rabbit 



1 For monkeys, see 'Imitation in Monkeys,' by M. E. Haggerty, 

 Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology (July, 1909) ; ' Some 

 Mental Processes of the Rhesus Monkey,' by William T. Shepherd 

 (Psychological Monographs, Nov., 1910). For cats, 'An Experimental 

 Study of Imitation in Cats,' by C. S. Berry (J.C.N. and Ps., 1908). 

 For Raccoons, ' Concerning the Intelligence of Raccoons,' by L. W. 

 Cole (ed. 1907) cited in 'Animal Behaviour,' by H. S. Jennings 

 (American Naturalist, March, 1908). I have not seen Mr. Cole's article, 

 but have to thank the other writers mentioned for their monographs. 

 Mr. Jennings in the same paper quotes from Mr. G. van T. Hamilton 

 an experiment showing what appears as a high development of this 

 method in a dog. But again I have not seen the original. 



