October 29, 1903] 



NATURE 



^Z'h 



than Britain in pushing on railway construction and pro- 

 moting the expansion of their commerce. Dr. H. O. Forbes 

 ad a report on the work of his expedition to Sokotra. 

 T. J. P. Thompson, the energetic Queensland geographer, 

 uitributed a comprehensive account of the geography of 



, the State. 



[ Exploration is now no longer confined to foreign lands, 



\ and some of the younger botanists have shown us what can 

 be done when the plant world at home is regarded geo- 



\ graphically. From the point of view of pure science they are 

 making an important contribution to the study of the re- 

 lationship between organisms and environment, and com- 

 piling part of the data necessary for the study of macro- 

 organisms — the complex associations of rock, air, water, 

 and organic life considered as a whole, which are the 

 subject-matter of the geographer. From the point of view 

 of applied science they are carrying out an equally valuable 

 work, for a knowledge of the characteristics and distribution 

 of the different plant associations is the best clue to the 

 possibilities and limits of their profitable exploitation for 

 the production of economically important plants and 

 animals. Such botanical surveys might well be subsidised 

 by the Board of .Agriculture. The example of the Canadian 

 Geological Survey might be followed, and the work be 

 entrusted to teachers of botany who would carry it out in 

 their vacations. 



Dr. Otto Darbishire, of Owens College, discussed the 

 general problem of the relations of botany and geography, 

 and insisted on the necessity for modern travellers having 

 a knowledge of ecology. Dr. W. G. Smith, of the York- 

 shire College, who has carried on the work of his deceased 

 brother, who planned a botanical survey of Great Britain, 

 also urged the importance of the observation and mapping 

 of vegetation features in geographical exploration, and 

 illustrated his thesis by reference to the maps already made 

 for Britain. The maps made of the plant associations of 

 the Eden, Tees, Tyne, and Wear basins by Mr. F. J. 

 Lewis, of University College, Liverpool, were shown and 

 described, and Mr. Moss discussed the age and origin of the 

 peat moors of the southern Pennines. 



One of the applications of botanical geography to practical 

 affairs was well illustrated in a valuable paper by the chief 

 engineer of the Liverpool Waterworks, Mr. Parry, who has 

 been the pioneer in the afforestation of the catchment areas 

 of water reservoirs, which has been proved to increase the 

 purity of the water supplied to the citizens and to protect 

 their pockets. Mr. E. D. Morel also discussed a problem 

 in applied geography. He pointed out the value of West 

 .'\frica for the production of raw cotton, and the results that' 

 ha.J been obtained by appealing to the commercial instincts 

 of the natives instead of having recourse to coercion. The 

 importance of a study of native land and administrative 

 systems was emphasised. 



Mr. E. A. Reeves read a timely paper on the nature of 

 geographical surveying suited to present requirements, when 

 route charts must be replaced by maps based on surveys 

 planned on scientific lines, while not so elaborate or accurate 

 as large trigonometrical surveys. Mr. E. Heawood con- 

 tributed the one paper on the history of geography. He 

 discussed the newly discovered maps of Henricus Glareanus, 

 who first described a convenient method for constructing 

 the gores of a globe. One of his maps is the earliest known 

 which shows a hemisphere on an equidistant polar pro- 

 jection. 



The geography and education sections held a joint sitting 

 to discuss geographical education. Mr. H. J. Mackinder 

 opened with an eloquent exposition of the regional method 

 of teaching geography and of the possibility of weaving 

 into the regional treatment so much as is needed of other 

 sciences by taking these one at a time in the successive 

 staees of the strictly geographical argument. He sub- 

 mitted that geography could be placed in its rightful position 

 only by the simultaneous application of a four-fold policy : — 

 (() The encouragement of university schools of geography 

 where geographers should be made, of whom many would 

 become secondary teachers ; (2) the appointment of trained 

 geographers as teachers in our secondary schools, either for 

 geography alone or for geography and general help in 

 other subjects ; (3) the general acceptance of a progression 

 of method in the subject, not expressed in detailed syllabuses 

 issued by the State or other dominant authority which 

 would tend to stereotype teaching, but in a tradition similar 

 NO. 1774. VOL. 68] 



to that which at different times has governed the teaching 

 of language and mathematics ; (4) the setting of examin- 

 ations by expert geographical teachers. 



Mr. Hugh Richardson gave a valuable account of how 

 he taught his pupils from thirteen to seventeen years of 

 age the use of maps and books, and insisted on the. value 

 of laboratory work on which their books gave little help. 

 Mr. Hewlett spoke of aims and difficulties in the teaching 

 of geography, and Mr. Cloudesley Brereton of geography 

 in secondary education. 



In the discussion which followed, the main objections 

 urged against Mr. Mackinder's ideas were that sullicient 

 time was not allowed for carrying them out, and that it 

 was impossible to adopt his suggestion that pupils should 

 be grouped in special sets for the geography lessons. The 

 need for teachers who have had a training in geography, 

 and the value of geography as a coordinating subject in 

 the curriculum, seemed to be recognised by all. 



A. J. H. 



ENGINEERING AT THE BRITISH 



ASSOCIATION. 



'T'HE section had a lengthy programme to work through 



■*■ at Southport, but it must be confessed that there were 



but few papers of outstanding importance. 



On Thursday, September 10, after Mr. Hawksley's presi- 

 dential address, which naturally dealt mainly with the 

 problem of the supply of water to cities and villages, a 

 paper was read by Mr. C. A. Brereton on the new King 

 Edward VTL bridge over the River Thames, at Kew. The 

 author showed some interesting lantern slides to explain 

 more clearly the method of construction adopted in previous 

 bridges which crossed the river at this site, and also in 

 the case of the new structure. It was not until 1892 that, 

 induced by the increase in the traffic and the inconvenience 

 caused by the narrowness of the old bridge and the steep- 

 ness of its gradients, the County Councils of Surrey and 

 Middlesex decided to take steps to replace the bridge by a 

 new one ; the necessary Act of Parliament was eventually 

 obtained in 1898, the contract was then let to Mr. Gibb, 

 and the work was begun at once. 



The bridge consists of three elliptical arches, the centre 

 one being of rather longer span than the two side arches ; 

 it has a span of 133 feet, and a headway of 20 feet above 

 Trinity high-water mark, while the two side spans are only 

 116 feet 6 inches in span, with a headway of 17 feet. The 

 piers from which these three arches spring are carried down 

 into the solid London Clay at a depth of 18 feet below the 

 bed of the river. The width of the carriage way is 36 feet, 

 and there are 9 feet 6 inch footways on either side; the 

 maximum gradient is only i in 40. The whole of the 

 arches, and the exterior of the piers, is constructed of solid 

 granite, chiefly Cornwall and Aberdeen, many of the big 

 stones weighing as much as 8 tons each. To provide for 

 the traffic during the construction of the new bridge, a 

 temporary timber bridge was put up alongside the old one ; 

 this was completed in the remarkably short time of six 

 months. The cofferdams for the piers of the new bridge 

 were started in December, 1899, and but little difficulty 

 was met with in their construction. All three arches were 

 constructed simultaneously, and therefore it was necessary 

 for all the stones for the arches to be brought on to the 

 ground before the turning of the arches was commenced ; 

 every stone was numbered and placed in the receiving yard 

 ready to take its place in the work. The masonry of the 

 arches was commenced in May, 1902, and completed in 

 December of that year — an extremely expeditious piece of 

 work. The total length of the bridge proper; is 502 feet, 

 the approaches on the Middlesex and Surrey sides bringing 

 the overall length to 1182 feet. The bridge was opened by 

 His Majesty the King on May 20 last, having taken about 

 three and a half years to construct ; one year was occupied 

 in the construction of the temporary bridge and the removal 

 of the old bridge. 



The only other paper dealt with on the Thursday was an 

 interesting contribution by Mr. J. Harrison — illustrations 

 of graphical analysis. The author gave an account of a 

 simple graphical method of obtaining equations for the dis- 

 placement of the valve, and for the sliding of the block in 

 the link in an ordinary Stephenson's link gear. In fact, it 



