MODERN CARRIAGES. 391 



an umbrella or parasol ; in the application of single steps, with 

 covers to open with the doors ; in improved weather plates to 

 effectually prevent rain entering through the joint of the roof; 

 in the use of mild steel in place of iron plates, increasing the 

 stiffness and reducing the weight of the body ; in securing the 

 standing pillars on the sides of the solid rockers, instead of fram- 

 ing them into the bottom sides, whereby doorways are rendered 

 much stiffer, and the doors and glasses more easy and certain 

 in action. 



The interiors of carriages have also been much improved 

 by spiral springs of thin steel wire in the cushions and backs, 

 morocco-covered trays, card-case pockets, portable mirrors, 

 whistles and bells to communicate with the coachman ; the lace 

 is better woven, and the interiors have an air of greater com- 

 fort, neatness, and high finish. It is singular to what an extent 

 silk linings for carriages have been abandoned during the last 

 twenty years, in favour of morocco leather with a dull grained 

 surface ; it may be on the score of the greater durability of 

 leather. 



Lever breaks to retard the speed of carriages descending 

 hills, by pressing a block of iron, wood, or India-rubber on the 

 tires of the hind wheels, were introduced about thirty years 

 ago. Screw breaks had been used on the continent of Europe 

 for some time before, probably necessitated by the require- 

 ments of travelling on the steep gradients of the Alpine ranges 

 of Switzerland and Italy ; their action, at first weak and un- 

 certain, has been greatly improved, but the lever is almost 

 invariably preferred in this country. Some coachmakers 

 cleverly conceal most of the working parts, and thereby pre- 

 vent disfigurement to the outlines of good carriages. The late 

 Prince Consort had a screw break applied to one of his 

 fourgons, in which the screw had so rapid a pitch that one 

 or one and a half turns applied the pressure on the wheels. 



Here it may be not inappropriate to refer to the increasing 

 use of India-rubber tires. Applied to the wheels of the best 

 London carriages (although expensive), they afford ease and 



