October 23, 1890] 



NATURE 



625 



systematic relationships, but that it demands, on the one hand, 

 the most patient and refined researches into the life-history of 

 these organisms, and the variations in their biology due to 

 changes in the environment, and, on the other hand, as deep an 

 insight as can be obtained into the normal physiology of the 

 host-plants, and the variations in this due to changes in the 

 environment. In other words, not only must the investigator 

 attack the question of the mutual relations between parasite and 

 host (and he cannot understand these without studying the 

 normal biology of both), but he must also look into the relations 

 of each to a varying physical environment. 



As I said before, it would be hard to say what botanical 

 information can be superfluous in such a training. 



But there are other technical pursuits which demand a train- 

 ing in elementary botany, and among these that of the timber 

 merchant, and those of the builder, carpenter, and architect may 

 be grouped together. 



It is admitted that these people should understand the nature 

 and properties of timber in the wide sense, and especially of certain 

 kinds of wood in particular. My case is made out quite clearly 

 by the efforts one meets with in various articles and books on 

 tim.ber, designed for the information of those engaged in the 

 trades and professions referred to, and by the lamentable failures 

 in conveying clear instructions, owing to the want of acquaint- 

 ance with the elements of botanical science. 



I maintain that no one can properly understand the markings. 



Tabular Rhutni of the Various Branches of Botanical Study y as grouped for the preceding argument. 



Specialist in mor- 

 phology 



Specialist in pathology 

 of plants 



Specialist in 

 physiology 



f 



Specialist in 



palaeontology 



(archaeology, &c.) 



Foresters, planters, 

 farmers, gardeners, 

 fruit-growers, &c. 



Comparative mor 

 phology 



Timber-merchants, 

 carpenters, archi- 

 tects, builders 



Artists, designers, 

 travellers, &c. 



Brewers, ) ( Special courses for 



bakers, wine- \ 1 technical schools, 



makers, &c. ) ( affecting 



Pharmacologists, 



druggists, tanners, 



dyers, and others 



who use oils, resins, 



&c. 



Museum 

 curators and col- 

 lectors, &c. 



Paper makers 



and those who 



use fibres 



Comparative \ 

 physiology /" 



/ Specialist in bacteriology 

 "I and ferments, &c. 



Systematic study of comparative ana- i University and 

 tomy and histology ; refined micro- > colle<^e life 

 scopic work, &c., &c. ) "=> ■' 



Specialist in systematic botany 



(including geographical botany, 



origin of species, &c.) 



Study of types illustrating life-history, 

 structure, and elementary morpho- 

 logy and physiology ; introduction to 

 microscopic work and drawings 



Higher school and 

 college work 



Elementary organography : descrip- | School boys ana 



tive and systematic botany, lens in > girls of about 



hand ; drawings, and field-work ) lo to 14 



Lessons in observation and compari- \ 

 son of the parts of common plants. ( Adapted for 

 The pupil to have specimens in hand ; I young children 

 the teacher to use black-board ) 



colour, texture, and other technological peculiarities of timber 

 who is ignorant of its structure ; and I have had abundance of 

 proof afforded me of the interest taken in this subject by indi- 

 viduals connected with the numerous callings centred around 

 that of the timber merchant — e.g. wood-carvers, turners, cabinet- 

 makers, wheelwrights — as well as by archaeologists and geolo- 

 gists, who are brought face to face with problems which require 

 an acquaintance with the structure of timber for their solution. 



Now, the structure of timber is a very interesting subject if 

 properly approached, but it is a very complex and hopeless sub- 

 ject for one who is unacquainted with the meaning of the four 

 or five histological elements which compose wood, and of their 

 development from the cambium-cells; and, to comprehend these 

 things, the student should know the elements of botany. 



NO. 1095, "^'OL. 42] 



But it is not only the properties of timber that have to be 

 understood by the workers and dealers in wood. An important 

 subject, which is coming more and more to the front, is that of 

 the classification and identification of timbers. It is astonishing 

 how cleverly practical experts can find their way through the 

 difficulties which beset those who have to decide upon the value 

 of timber, and the suitability of different pieces of wood for 

 various purposes ; but even more astounding is the vagueness of 

 their replies to the very natural question, How do you decide in 

 difficult cases ? One thing is clear— the expert bases his con- 

 clusions on keen observations of minute details, and yet these 

 observations are not recorded : the whole system is one of 

 empiricism and blind rule-of-thumb guess-work. It serves the 

 purpose in many cases, just as rough measurements by an expe- 



