November 2, 1899] 



NA TURE 



I9t 



The Greenland glaciers appear to move about three times as fast 

 as the Swiss ones. Do the Antarctic ones move faster still ? In 

 Spitsbergen the glacier streams sometimes take very large pro- 

 portions. How does it stand with the Antarctic ones in this 

 respect? The " grain " of the Spitsbergen glaciers does not 

 seem to be larger than that of the principal Swiss glaciers. 

 The Antarctic land ice must be dissected with a view to the de- 

 termination of the size and the articulation of the grain. It is, 

 therefore, of the first importance that the chemist and physicist 

 should have spent some time, both in summer and in winter, 

 examining for himself the conditions of one of the Swiss glaciers. 

 This is quite as necessary for him as having spent a certain time 

 in a chemical or a physical laboratory'. 



The papers on Antarctic exploration gave rise to an animated 

 discussion. Prof. Rucker, speaking of the requirements for 

 magnetic work, expressed his preference for observations on 

 Vjoard a wooden ship cruising rDund the Antarctic, to the con- 

 centration of observations on a few fixed stations ; although he 

 allowed that excellent results could be obtained from fixed 

 stations if they were numerous enough, and not established upon 

 magnetic rocks ; series of well-distributed stations being more 

 important than a position in high southern latitudes or equip- 

 ment with apparatus of remarkable delicacy. Major Darwin 

 observed that such differences of opinion as had been expressed 

 regarding the work to be attempted in Antarctic exploration 

 arose simply from the want of funds to provide for the complete 

 representation of all departments ; and he indicated two guiding 

 principles, (i) If a special Antarctic ship is to be built, it 

 should spend the whole of the available time in the Antarctic 

 regions proper. (2) The greatest unknown feature should be 

 selected for study ; that is, the Antarctic continent. For any 

 kind of south polar expedition it is of the utmost importance to 

 select the scientific staff with the greatest possible care. 

 Mr. George Murray said that he had been carefully study- 

 ing the question of the cost of ships, and had come to the 

 conclusion that for two well-equipped vessels, each with an 

 adequate scientific staff, a sum of 150,000/. would certainly be 

 required. Dr. Koettlitz laid stress on the importance of expert 

 supervision in the preparation of all the tinned foods of an 

 expedition. Sir John Murray, in summing up the discus.sion, 

 said it was plain that for a proper study of the Antarctic regions 

 two ships would be required, one specially designed for magnetic 

 work and for penetrating the ice, the other equipped for circum- 

 polar oceanographical observations. 



OCEANOGRAPHICAL PAPERS. 



Dr. Gerhard Schott, of the Hamburg Marine Observatory, 

 the oceanographer of the German deep-sea expedition, gave an 

 account of the chief results of the voyage of the Valdivia, 

 illustrated by many photographs, including some fine pictures 

 of tabular and peaked Antarctic icebergs. The expedition, 

 sent out at the expense of the German Government, was 

 practically a circumnavigation of Africa, though in wide curves 

 including the invasion of the Antarctic region to the edge of the 

 pack-ice off Enderby Land. Apart from the exploration of the 

 edge of the southern ice and the rediscovery of Bouvet Island, 

 the cruise was of great geographical importance on account of 

 the exact oceanographical study of the whole of the tropical 

 Indian Ocean for the first time. The oceanographical results 

 include deep-sea soundings carried out with two different 

 machines, one the Sigsbee, of American manufacture, which 

 acted remarkably well, even in very stormy weather. 



T.ie utilisation of an electromotor for winding up the wire was 

 a nesv and very successful application much to be commended, 

 especially for polar work, when steam -pipes are apt to freeze. 

 The most important soundings were those made between Cape- 

 town and Bouvet Island, thence southward to the edge of the 

 ice, and eastwards along the margin of the pack, and thence north 

 to Kerguelen. This region had previously been almost unknown. 

 During this part of the trip great attention was paid to ice- 

 conditions, the ice being distinguished into Drift-ice, consisting 

 of low fragmentary masses, often obviously portions broken off 

 glaciers ; Pack-ice, greenish stratified masses of frozen sea- 

 water ; and Icebergs, which in the east near Bouvet Island were 

 rugged, much waterworn,and had obviously come from a distance ; 

 while in the east, near Enderby Land, they were tabular in form, 

 quite fresh and unworn : their height was usually from 100 to 

 180 feet. The meteorological conditions were also studied 

 throughout the cruise with great care. 



Mr. H. N. Dickson discussed the observations of temperature 



NO. 1566, VOL. 61] 



of water and air round the Briti.sh Islands. The mean 

 nionthly and annual temperatures of the surface waters 

 of the sea during the pe>iod 1880-97 are shown for sixty- 

 five stations distributed round the coasts of England, Scotland 

 and Ireland. The average for the year at the entrance to the 

 English Channel is nearly 54" P., it falls as the Channel narrows 

 to 52 between the Start and Cape la Hogue, and remains steady 

 to beyond the Straits of Dover, at least as far as the East 

 Goodwin light-vessel. On the south-west coast of Ireland the 

 annual mean is about 52°, falling to 51" in St. George's Channel, 

 and 50° in the Irish Sea. A slow fall from 52° to 50' takes 

 place on the west coast of Ireland until the N.W. corner is 

 reached. The mean of 49° persists along the north coast of 

 Ireland to the North Channel, and along the whole of the west 

 coast of Scotland to Stornoway. On the east coast temperature 

 falls very quickly, as soon as we get out of range of the Straits 

 of Dover, to 50° off Suffolk and Norfolk, and then there is a 

 gradual fall northwards, to 48° off the coast of Northumber- 

 land, 47^° off Aberdeenshire, and 47° at the Orkneys and 

 Shetlands. The effect of the tidal streams in mixing the waters 

 is exceedingly well marked. The annual minimum of temper- 

 ature rarely occurs in March, most frequently in January, espe- 

 cially at stations open to the Atlantic. The annual maximum 

 occurs almost everywhere in August. 



Mean temperatures of the surface water are compared with 

 the forty-year averages for the air, recently published by Buchan. 

 A comparison shows that the mean annual difference has hitherto 

 been somewhat over-estimated, especially on the western coast ; 

 in no case is the mean excess of sea over air greater than 2^ F. 

 The maximum difference occurs everywhere in November and 

 December, and is greatest on the south coast of England 

 between Portland Bill and the Straits of Dover. 



Mr. Dickson a'so contributed a paper on the temperature and 

 salinity of the surface water of the North Atlantic during 1896 and 

 1897. The completed series of forty-eight monthly charts of sur- 

 face temperature and salinity, the mode of construction of which 

 was described in a paper read before the Section last year, was 

 exhibited, and along with it maps showing the departures from 

 the mean distribution of air pressure and temperature during the 

 same period. A number of new features in the movements of 

 surface waters were disclosed, notably in connection with the 

 distribution of polar waters from the western Atlantic. 



Dr. H. R. ^Iill suggested a system of terminology for the 

 forms of sub-oceanic relief. He said that the fact that the 

 forms of the ocean floor cannot be seen, but only felt out by 

 soundings, makes their study one of peculiar difficulty. Some 

 distinguished authorities believe that our present knowledge of 

 the deep sea is too slight to justify any systematic terminology. 

 Meanwhile each investigator introduces a set of names of his own, 

 for the most part based on analogies with land forms visible to the 

 eye. It is obvious that there are two great classes of forms, 

 elevations above and depressions below the general level of the 

 ocean floor ; but the question is how many subdivisions of each 

 can be recognised as distinctive and deserving of generic names. 

 The following general scheme of terminology is put forward 

 tentatively, premising that no attempt be made to localise any 

 precise type of form unless a considerable number of soundings 

 exist to define it : — 



Depression — The general term for any hollow of the ocean 

 floor. Basin — A relatively wide depression, with comparatively 

 gently sloping sides. Caldron — A relatively wide depression, 

 with comparatively steeply sloping sides. Furrow— \ relatively 

 narrow depression with comparatively gently sloping sides. 

 Trough — A relatively narrow depression with comparatively 

 steeply sloping sides. Wall — Any submarine slojfe comparable 

 in steepness to a precipice on land. Floor — Any very gentle 

 submarine slope or nearly level surface. Elevation — Any 

 inequality above the general level of the ocean floor. A'ise-—A 

 relatively narrow elevation. Bank — A relatively wide elevation. 

 Skoal — An elevation coming within five fathoms of the surface, 

 so as to be a danger to shipping. Shelf— K nearly horizontal 

 bank attached to the land and bordered seaward by a much 

 more abrupt downward slope. 



Mr. C. W. Andrews, in a paper on the relation of Christmas 

 Island to the neighbouring lands, referred to the peculiarities 

 of the geology and biology of the island, and traced the 

 resemblances which seemed to associate it with the Cocos- 

 Keeling group on one side and Java on the other. The 

 occurrence of earthworms in Christmas Island was aii anomaly 

 in the biology of oceanic islands, and difficult to explain. 



