32 SIGNS AND THEIR LAWS. [CHAP. II. 



The reader must bear in mind that although the symbols x 

 and y in the examples previously formed received significations 

 distinct from each other, nothing prevents us from attributing to 

 them precisely the same signification. It is evident that the 

 more nearly their actual significations approach to each other, 

 the more nearly does the class of things denoted by the combi- 

 nation xy approach to identity with the class denoted by x, as 

 well as with that denoted by y. The case supposed in the de- 

 monstration of the equation (2) is that of absolute identity of 

 meaning. The law which it expresses is practically exemplified 

 in language. To say " good, good," in relation to any subject, 

 though a cumbrous and useless pleonasm, is the same as to say 

 "good." Thus "good, good" men, is equivalent to "good" 

 men. Such repetitions of words are indeed sometimes employed 

 to heighten a quality or strengthen an affirmation. But this 

 eifect is merely secondary and conventional ; it is not founded in 

 the intrinsic relations of language and thought. Most of the 

 operations which we observe in nature, or perform ourselves, are 

 of such a kind that their effect is augmented by repetition, and 

 this circumstance prepares us to expect the same thing in lan- 

 guage, and even to use repetition when we design to speak with 

 emphasis. But neither in strict reasoning nor in exact discourse 

 is there any just ground for such a practice. 



10. We pass now to the consideration of another class of the 

 signs of speech, and of the laws connected with their use. 



CLASS II. 



11. Signs of those mental operations whereby we collect parts 

 into a whole, or separate a whole into its parts. 



We are not only capable of entertaining the conceptions of 

 objects, as characterized by names, qualities, or circumstances, 

 applicable to each individual of the group under consideration, 

 but also of forming the aggregate conception of a group of objects 

 consisting of partial groups, each of which is separately named 

 or described. For this purpose we use the conjunctions "and," 

 "or,"&c. " Trees and minerals," "barren mountains, or fer- 

 tile vales," are examples of this kind. In strictness, the words 



