CHAP. XIII.] CLARKE AND SPINOZA. 211 



The following results are easily deduced 



Natural evil is either absolute evil, which is a consequence of mo- 

 ral evil, or it is not absolute evil at all. 



All evils are either absolute evils, which are consequences of the 

 abuse of liberty, or they are not absolute evils. 



Natural evils are either evils of imperfection, which are not ab- 

 solute evils, or they are not evils of imperfection at all. 



Absolute evils are either natural evils, which are Consequences of 

 the abuse of liberty, or they are not natural evils, and at the same 

 time not evils of imperfection. 



Consequences of the abuse of liberty include all natural evils 

 which are absolute evils, and are not evils of imperfection, with an 

 indefinite remainder of natural evils which are not absolute, and of 

 evils which are not natural. 



16. These examples will suffice for illustration. The reader 

 can easily supply others if they are needed. We proceed now to 

 examine the most essential portions of the demonstration of 

 Spinoza. 



DEFINITIONS. 



1. By a cause of itself (causa sui), I understand that of which 

 the essence involves existence, or that of which the nature can- 

 not be conceived except as existing. 



2. That thing is said to be finite or bounded in its own kind 

 (in suo generefinitd) which may be bounded by another thing of 

 the same kind ; e. g. Body is said to be finite, because we can 

 always conceive of another body greater than a given one. So 

 thought is bounded by other thought. But body is not bounded 

 by thought, nor thought by body. 



3. By substance, I understand that which is in itself (in se), 

 and is conceived by itself (per se concipitur\ i. e., that whose 

 conception does not require to be formed from the conception of 

 another thing. 



4. By attribute, I understand that which the intellect per- 

 ceives in substance, as constituting its very essence. 



5. By mode, I understand the affections of substance, or that 

 which is in another thing, by which thing also it is conceived. 



6. By God, I understand the Being absolutely infinite, that 



