130 THE ARTICULATIONS. 



are surrounded either by boiling, maceration, or scraping. But when we 

 come to examine the soft textures, in order to do so profitably it is necessary 

 to learn beforehand the rules which should be followed in their preparation. 9 

 The following are laid down with regard to the study of the articulations : 



1. To prepare the articulations, young subjects are chosen in preference to those ad- 

 vanced in years, because the density of the cellular tissue in them is not so great, and this 

 tissue is easily removed from around the ligaments. As these are prepared with difficulty 

 when the external surface is in a dry state, care should be taken before dissecting them 

 to have them excluded from the air by covering them with damp cloths, or with the 

 skin of the animal. 



2. It is convenient to separate the articulation we wish to dissect by sawing through 

 the bones at a certain distance from the articular surfaces. The manipulation of the 

 part is then rendered easier, and its dissection can be made under the most favourable 

 conditions. 



3. It is necessary to preserve as carefully as possible the muscles surrounding the 

 articulations, in order to be able to study their relations with the ligaments whicli bind 

 these. If it be absolutely necessary to remove them, their insertions corresponding to 

 the articulation should always be retained. 



4. The capsular ligaments should be the first studied, as these have soon to be 

 removed the better to show the funicular ligaments. These, in their turn, must be 

 sacrificed in order to display, by different sections, the interosseous cords, when these exist. 

 Lastly, the two articular surfaces should be completely separated, so as to examine 

 their conformation. 



5. The synovial membranes, with their different culs-de-sac, being a very important 

 study, with reference to the diagnosis and treatment of articular tumours, it is convenient 

 to devote a special piece to the examination of these serous membranes. It is very 

 useful to inject their interior with plaster or tallow coloured black, in order to distend 

 their cavities, and thus aid the study of their relations with ligaments, tendons, or 

 muscles. 



For the preparation of each articulation it is not necessary to give any directions; 

 a glance at the figures accompanying the description will suffice to dispel any embarass- 

 ment the student may experience, while he always requires particular indications. 



(Notwithstanding the above remarks with regard to the preparation of the ligaments, 

 I have thought it advisable to follow the example given in the last edition of ' Leyh's 

 Anatomy ' by Zundel, and briefly indicate the readiest method of demonstrating these 

 organs, for the special benefit of the student.) 



ARTICLE I. ARTICULATIONS OF THE SPINE. 



(Preparation. Kemove all the soft parts surrounding the vertebral column, taking 

 care not to injure the inferior longitudinal ligament in cutting away the pillars of the 

 diaphragm and the psoas muscles ; nor the ligaments uniting the articular processes to each 

 other and the transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae to the ribs, in removing the 

 supercostal and transverse spinal muscles. To expose the common superior longitudinal 

 ligament, separate the bodies of the vertebrae from their annular portions by the saw or 

 chisel, and remove the spinal cord and dura mater ; in doing this the inferior face of the 

 interannular ligaments will be also removed. Examine an intervertebral fibro-cartilage 

 by two sections a transverse at an equal distance from the two vertebrae, and a longi- 

 tudinal through the middle line of the bodies.) 



These articulations are intrinsic and extrinsic. The first comprises all 

 the articulations of the vertebras with each other ; the second those of the 

 spine with the head, the ribs, and the coxae. 



Intervertebral Articulations. 



The vertebras correspond : 1, By their bodies ; 2, By their spinal or 

 annular portion. There results from this union two kinds of articulation, 

 which must be studied separately, as they do not belong to the same 

 class. It is well to mention, however, that the general details into which 

 this study leads us apply only to the articulations uniting the last six 



