41 



" It is by no means .uncommon also to find small lizards and geckos,, 

 which doubtless take some toll of pregnant and newly emerged flies. 



" No evidence has been seen that any scratching animals habitually 

 seek food in such places, the various Grallatores francolin, partridge,, 

 and guinea fowl which abound in the tsetse areas, preferring more 

 open places, especially where game is in the habit of resting." 



According to Mr. LI. Lloyd (91), all the G. morsitans breeding places 

 examined by him in Northern Rhodesia, in 1915, showed the presence 

 of a dark hiding place for the flies, and almost all were of the type met 

 with in other fly areas. Exceptions occurred near the Lukanga River, 

 in the thin mopani forest, and in the bed of the Burbwa stream in 

 Chutika. These three breeding places were such as to show the 

 improbability of pregnant females being influenced by any special 

 odour, such as that of humus. It appears that pupae are most 

 numerous in districts in which game is plentiful. 



This conclusion is strongly supported by the more recent experience 

 of Swynnerton (145), who states that, when investigating the breeding 

 habits of G. morsitans in North Mossurise, Portuguese East Africa,, 

 he " took many hundreds of full and evacuated puparia in all from 



more than a hundred breeding places The vast majority 



of the pupae were in the nearest suitable hiding-place to a spot in 

 which big animals had been lying, down buffalos (mainly), wart- 

 hogs, hartebeests, etc." Swynnerton, who thinks that the female flies 

 generally deposit their larvae when hiding during intervals between 

 meals, and that the spots in which they do so are such as are convenient 

 to themselves, " but by no means necessarily " to their offspring, 

 obtained " indirect evidence " indicating that the maggots are some- 

 times dropped from a height of several feet above the ground. On 

 the subject of the breeding places discovered, this author writes : 

 ;< Most of my puparia were found under prostrate trunks and branches, 

 raised little or much from the ground, but batches were also found in 

 the angles of root-buttresses, under mere leaning trees, under fallen 

 palm leaves, and below and between the outleaning dry leaf stems at 

 the bases of palms (Hyphaene ventricosa), in holes in trees and in holes 

 made by animals in banks, and where the hoof-marks of passing animals 

 had broken the slight crust of a sandy stream-bed immediately under 

 light overhanging grasses. I failed, in spite of much search, to find 

 tsetse pupae in the leaf-sheaths of palms, though I took Lepidopterous 

 and often other Dipterous pupae there. The situation was usually 

 dry, but some of my sand-stream pupae were in a moist situation, and 

 I took a pupa-case that had emerged successfully under a fallen 

 Eugenia log in very damp ground on the edge of a vlei." 



" Provided that the hiding-place itself afforded shade to the mother,, 

 overhead shade (as an analysis showed) was a matter of complete 

 indifference, and the ground in which puparia lay was commonly 

 reached by the sun during part of the day. 



" The puparia were usually close beneath the surface of the earth, and 

 the evidence suggested that the maggot had wandered but little from 

 where it was dropped. Under each log was usually harder ground,, 

 interspersed with softer pockets where babblers (Crateropus) or small 

 mammals had previously scratched. The puparia tended to be 

 congregated in these pockets, but they appeared in some cases to give 

 evidence also of gregarious settling by their mothers." 



As regards G. pallidipes, in Italian Somaliland, according to Croveri 

 (35) , the pupae of this species are found in nature under the surface soil 



