INFLUENCE OF THE MACEDONIAN CAMPAIGNS. 529 



The Macedonian campaign, which opened so large and 

 beautiful a portion of the earth to the influence of one sole 

 highly-gifted race, may, therefore, certainly be regarded, in 

 the strictest sense of the word, as a scientific expedition ; and, 

 moreover, as the first in which a conqueror had surrounded 

 himself with men learned in all departments of science, as 

 naturalists, geometricians, historians, philosophers, and artists. 

 The results that we owe to Aristotle are not, however, solely 

 to be referred to his own personal labours, for he acted also 

 through the intelligent men of his school who accompanied 

 the expedition. Amongst these shone pre-eminently Calli&the- 

 nes of Olynthus, the near kinsman of the Stagirite, who had 

 already, before the campaign, composed a work on botany, 

 and a treatise on the organs of vision. Owing to the rigid 

 austerity of his morals, and the unchecked freedom of his 

 speech, he was regarded with hatred by Alexander himself, 

 who had already fallen from his noble and elevated mode of 

 thought, and by the flatterers of the prince. Callisthenes 

 undauntedly preferred liberty to life, and when in Bactria he 

 was implicated, although guiltless, in the conspiracy of Hermo- 

 laus and the pages, he became the unhappy occasion of Alex- 

 ander's exasperation against his former instructor. Theo- 

 phrastes, the warm Mend and fellow disciple of Callisthenes, 

 had the generosity to undertake his defence after his fall. 

 Of Aristotle we only know that he recommended prudence to 

 his friend before his departure, for being, as it would appear, 



probable, yet the latest writings of our great anatomist Johannes 

 Miiller, show with what wonderful delicacy Aristotle dissected the 

 fishes of the Greek seas. See the learned treatise of Johannes Miiller, 

 on the adherence of the ovum to the uterus, in one of the two species 

 of the genus Mustelus living in the Mediterranean, which in its foetal 

 state possesses a placenta of the vitelline vesicle connected with the 

 uterine placenta of the mother; and his researches on the yaXcoc; Xao 

 of Aristotle in the Abhandl. der Berliner Akad. aus d. J. 1840, s. 

 192-197. (Compare Aristot. Hist. Anim., vi. 10, and de Gener. 

 Anim. iii. 3.) The distinction and detailed analysis of the species of 

 cuttle-fish, the description of the teeth of snails, and the organs of other 

 gasteropodes, all testify to the delicate nicety of Aristotle's own anatomi- 

 cal examinations. Compare Hist. Anim., iv. 1 and 4, with Lebert in 

 Miiller's Archiv der Physiologie, 1846, s. 463 and 467. I, myself, in 

 1797, called the attention of modern naturalists to the form of snails' 

 teeth; see my Versuclie uber die gereizte Muskel und Nervenfaser, bd 

 i B. 261. 



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