FORESTRY. 



353 



to exert the most conservative influence 

 upon climate and upon the agricultural and 

 other interests of the state. The Germans 

 have studied the whole subject of tree-growth 

 in all its relations, with the utmost care, 

 and the result is that they are able to 

 grow three times as much timber on an acre 

 of ground as our natural forests produce, 

 and at the same time of better quality. The 

 management of a forest by them is like that 

 of one of our market-gardens compared with 

 an ordinary farm-field. The ground is well 

 chosen, if a new forest is to be created, or, 

 if it is already occupied with forest-trees, it is 

 put into the best condition to produce the 

 largest crop. Drains are made if necessary. 

 If the ground is not well stocked with trees, 

 the vacant spaces are filled. If the trees are 

 of inferior character, they are replaced as soon 

 as possible by better ones. If improper or 

 uncongenial trees are growing together, meas- 

 ures are taken, by removal and planting, to 

 produce a proper association, so that they shall 

 grow in harmony and without interference 

 with one another. The sickly are replaced by 

 such as are strong. The deformed have their 

 habit corrected by proper pruning, or are made 

 to give place to others. Thinnings are made at 

 the proper time so as to admit the requisite 

 amount of light and air to promote the most 

 rapid and healthy growth, and to secure the 

 proper seeding of the ground for a future 

 crop ; and finally, the trees are cut down and 

 converted into fuel or lumber when they have 

 attained the condition to be most valuable for 

 these uses. Dead trees are not allowed to 

 cumber the ground, and living trees are not 

 permitted to remain after they have attained 

 their growth and have ripened their wood. 



Then, in reducing the forest to use, similar 

 care is exercised. In felling the trees, caution 

 is taken not to injure the young trees which 

 are designed to continue the forest. Roads 

 and canals are made to facilitate the convey- 

 ance of the timber or fuel. All the opera- 

 tions are performed by the agents of the gov- 

 ernment or under their constant supervision. 



Germany not only produces all the lumber 

 and fuel she needs for her own use, but is 

 able to export a considerable quantity. And 

 this is done from the annual yield of her for- 

 ests, without trenching at all upon the sub- 

 stance of the forests as such. Indeed, we are 

 told that the tendency is to increase the 

 amount of land devoted to forests. 



The management of forests in France is 

 similar to that in Germany, which may be re- 

 garded as the system adopted substantially in 

 all the European states. It is modified some- 

 what by the greater need in France of study- 

 ing climatic effects. 



Everywhere, in the European system, the 

 forest tracts are carefully surveyed and mapped. 

 Then a period of rotation is fixed that is, the 

 time when the trees are expected to reach 

 their full growth and give place to their suc- 

 VOL. xxin. 23 A 



cessors. This differs according to the kinds 

 of trees grown. With the larch and birch it 

 ranges from fifty to sixty years, and in cold re- 

 gions twice that. With the locust and mari- 

 time pines, it is from sixty to seventy years ; 

 with the Scotch pine, it is from eighty to 

 ninety ; with the beech, from eighty to one 

 hundred and forty; with the ash, from ninety 

 to one hundred; with the chestnut, from 

 ninety to one hundred and twenty ; with the 

 spruce, from ninety to one hundred and forty; 

 with the fir, from one hundred to one hun- 

 dred and forty, the average being about one 

 hundred and twenty years; with the elm, 

 from one hundred to one hundred and twenty 

 years; and with the oak, from one hundred 

 and twenty to two hundred. To prevent 

 cutting off large tracts at once, and so making 

 openings through which violent winds might 

 gain admission, the forests are divided into 

 blocks, only one of which is cut at a time. Of 

 course, a first principle of any such system of 

 forestry is the exclusion of all cattle from the 

 forests, except where the trees are of such size 

 as to be in no danger either from their teeth 

 or their hoofs. 



We know nothing practically of such forest 

 management in this country. The growth of 

 forests is only accidental and Imp-hazard, and 

 our use of them has been most wasteful and 

 uneconomical. Cattle have been allowed free 

 range in them, and the young trees have been 

 eaten or broken down to such an extent that, 

 except with the primitive growth, our forests 

 have contained only a- comparatively small 

 number of trees, and these, on account of the 

 wide spaces often left between them and for 

 want of proper care, have become trees of in- 

 ferior character. 



To secure a class of persons competent to 

 manage forests as they are managed in Europe, 

 it is necessary that they should be trained for 

 the work. Accordingly, there have been es- 

 tablished in nearly every European country 

 what are known as schools of forestry. With 

 us they would be called colleges. There are 

 nine of them in the German Empire alone, 

 having a course of instruction varying from 

 two years to two and a half in length. The 

 complete and scientific character of the Euro- 

 pean forestry system will appear from a sched- 

 ule of the scheme of instruction. We give, 

 therefore, that of one of these schools, which 

 may be fairly taken as an example of all. In 

 this the course is two and a half years in 

 extent. The system of instruction is divided 

 into fundamental sciences, principal sciences, 

 and secondary sciences. In the first are em- 

 .braced general and theoretic chemistry, special 

 inorganic and organic chemistry, applied phys- 

 ics and meteorology, mineralogy and geology, 

 botany in general and forest botany in par- 

 ticular; microscopy, general zoology, with zo- 

 ological excursions ; geodesy, interest and rent 

 account, wood-measuring, surveying and level- 

 ing, plan-drawing, and public economy and 



